tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-33301360666494938602024-03-11T00:03:12.267-07:00New York History Review ArticlesArticles from our annual history magazines. 2007 to present.DLJhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14674534926004739081noreply@blogger.comBlogger161125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3330136066649493860.post-27655271014484950552023-12-29T09:25:00.000-08:002024-03-09T12:15:39.140-08:00 Historian from New York State Sheds Much Light on Long Island’s Dark, Revolutionary Past <b>By Michael Mauro DeBonis<br />Copyright ©2023. All rights reserved by the author</b><div><b><br /></b></div><div><b><br />Part 1: History as Background…</b><br /><br />In late August 1776, the newly minted American nation was fighting for survival against a determined, resourceful, and deadly British enemy. The American War for Independence had started in New England before brutally careening southward to New York Colony, of which New York City and Long Island were to become the focal point in Britain’s clandestine and savage military efforts to oust the Continental Army and General George Washington from their very existence. If English King George III and his huge and well-trained army of redcoats could successfully destroy Washington and his impoverished ragtag army in the field, then the Yankee Continental Congress would surely fade away, leaving North America freely in British hands.<br /><br />On August 27, 1776, British General Lord William Howe landed on the south coast of Long Island, in Brooklyn, along with an overwhelming fighting force of approximately 25,000-30,000 British regulars, perfectly taught and equipped to commit murder on the battlefield. Howe was aiming to avenge his embarrassing expulsion from Boston, where Washington had cleverly bluffed his way into making the wary British Army think they were outgunned and outmanned. Howe and the Crown’s forces were skillfully manipulated into giving up Boston to the recently created bluecoat Continental Army. <br /><br /> In the wake of the Thirteen Colonies’ failed (1775) diplomatic efforts to try to heal the steadily increasing and hostile rift between them and their English monarch, George III, the Continentals chose Virginian George Washington to lead their army. Washington was a man of moderate military experience. However, the Virginian gentleman planter and surveyor was a brilliant leader of men, and his courage to fight against severely superior odds was without equal in all of British Colonial America. Whereas most American military men would surrender or sue for peace while confronting a fiercely advantaged foe, Washington, the general, would never capitulate to British authorities. Washington was truly trustworthy in this respect and equally sincere and dedicated to promoting American liberty while bitterly fighting for it on American soil.<br /><br /> Washington and his Continental fighting force were in dire straights while campaigning against their British enemies, who outnumbered them by approximately 15,000-20,000 men. The 1776 Battles of Brooklyn and New York City quickly became one-sided and bloody defeats for Washington and his poorly trained and equipped bluecoat commandos. In the ensuing months after the late summer of 1776, Washington would rally his men to small but significant victories against British and Hessian armies stationed at Trenton and Princeton, New Jersey, between late December 1776 and early January 1777. General Washington had indeed proven two things: the British and their German allies were neither invincible nor were the Americans pre-destined to lose. Yankee determination would be the primary deciding factor in gaining an American victory in their Revolution against Great Britain, with Washington and his sparse American devotees acting as catalysts for U. S. independence from the English Crown.<div><br /></div><div>Although clear-cut, the American victories at Trenton and Princeton were far from absolute in removing the British from American territory. The War for Independence would painfully linger on, in one form or another, until the British Army wildly evacuated New York City (their principal headquarters in British North America, from 1776 onward) until late November 1783. The toll the British presence had on the inhabitants of Long Island and in New York City exacted the harshest consequences possible, with the British Army confiscating and utilizing many of the American farms, pastures, orchards, and cattle for fueling the British military machine, stationed in Manhattan and the rural Long Island countryside.<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in;"><br /> American feelings (in lower New York) quickly became belligerent and resentful towards their British overlords. And a murky and carnal history would follow British-occupied Long Island from late 1776 through late 1783 when the British finally decided to pack up and leave America for their English homeland. British criminal activity swiftly took root on Long Island, perpetuating long-term graft on both sides of the Revolution, including in NYC, for seven lengthy years. Long Island and New York City were the only regions in the entire Thirteen Colonies under total British control for almost the whole duration of the Revolutionary War. Not many personal accounts exist from these long-ago days, but the few and far-between records that do exist do not paint a flattering picture of the British military living on and near Long Island. Long Island historian David M. Griffin of Rocky Point, NY, has recently and carefully plumbed this arcane and poorly studied time of the history of lower New York State.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in;"><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj0JNnRBr4Ti2MiGgLTJy34cC-c4ReBXpSzPXuPvYjGe8RtVgVDCIvNx1i1-LBXzjv-kYl0s-QNt0TtHUsyJSSroWhSTWScrZ9JmMMWkK4Syd1jMhF5_fZVXqZxzflcgvJc1wPutyzmyIDAzBhtVwZVI2LjziVqtzYd4TVZ8C27rDqZaoNJ3TQXTIQAA7Xo/s1000/Chronicles%20of%20the%20British%20Occupation%20of%20Long%20Island,%202023.%20%20Photo%20Courtesy%20of%20Author%20David%20M.%20Griffin..jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1000" data-original-width="666" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj0JNnRBr4Ti2MiGgLTJy34cC-c4ReBXpSzPXuPvYjGe8RtVgVDCIvNx1i1-LBXzjv-kYl0s-QNt0TtHUsyJSSroWhSTWScrZ9JmMMWkK4Syd1jMhF5_fZVXqZxzflcgvJc1wPutyzmyIDAzBhtVwZVI2LjziVqtzYd4TVZ8C27rDqZaoNJ3TQXTIQAA7Xo/w133-h200/Chronicles%20of%20the%20British%20Occupation%20of%20Long%20Island,%202023.%20%20Photo%20Courtesy%20of%20Author%20David%20M.%20Griffin..jpg" width="133" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Courtesy of Author</td></tr></tbody></table><br />With impeccable thoroughness and superlative historical scholarship, author David Griffin shrewdly and factually notes (in his 2023 book <i>Chronicles of the British Occupation of Long Island</i>) the harsh and savage times of the overwhelming British military presence on Long Island and in NYC during the Revolutionary War. Mr. Griffin does so in 106 pages of very compelling and eloquent prose. It was a time of great turbulent, violent, and historical conflict, resulting in the era we presently refer to as the American Revolutionary War. The Revolutionary War was, in fact, a very vicious civil war, which brutishly amputated parents from their children, siblings from each other, and friend from friend alike. The Revolutionary War was a time in human history in which the direct heirs of the British Empire no longer identified themselves as Welsh, Scottish, or English. It was the time in human history when children of the British Empire first called themselves Americans, with the adjective American precisely meaning those citizens who were of a newly independent and wholly free country called <i>Americ</i>a.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in;">Between the British onslaught on Manhattan in the fall of 1776 and the concurrent American withdrawal from “York Island” (as both sides called it then), about half of New York City (Manhattan Island that was settled in those days) was mysteriously burned to the ground, during the intensive fighting taking place amongst redcoats and Continentals. The side that caused the great inferno is still unknown to this day. However, its motive was almost certainly accidental, as both the British and American sides did not benefit from living in a city devoid of habitable infrastructure. However, the substantial blaze left much of the city’s native population homeless and impoverished. <br /><br /> New York City (nonetheless) became the British Army’s principal center of operation during the Revolutionary War, specifically from 1776 to 1783. While NYC served as Britain’s main hub of military and administrative operations in the Thirteen Colonies, its adjacent rural territory of Long Island (which Britain dominated with its prolonged military presence) served in a threefold capacity. The first function of Britain’s occupation of Long Island (and NYC) was to use Long Island’s many rich farms and orchards as the chief breadbasket to feed the British Army stationed in NYC. Long Island had some of the most fertile topsoil in British North America, and it was more than up to the task of accomplishing such a job. The great supplies of hay needed to feed George III’s cavalry were also taken directly from Long Island farms and farmers.<br /><br /> The second purpose of Britain’s occupation of New York City and Long Island was to form a strategically (and geographically) advantageous military buffer zone between American-controlled New England to the Island’s north and the British-controlled colonies of the south, which included Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia. The southern colonies were positioned well below the Middle Atlantic region. By Britain taking and keeping control of New York City, Long Island, the South, and Canada, the British Crown (ideally) was thought to be able to squeeze the Continentals out of New England (the cradle of American troublemaking, according to the British, then) and also mainland New York Colony. Such a vivacious plan of action (attempted by the British regularly throughout The War for Independence) would have worked. <br /><br /> However, British losses at several key battles prevented redcoat Generals Howe and Clinton from achieving their grand opportunities to do so. These American victories were the 1776-1777 Battles of Trenton and Princeton (in New Jersey), the 1777 Battles of Saratoga (in upstate New York), and the 1778 American rout of the British Army at Monmouth, also in New Jersey. Other key American victories belonging to this same esteemed lot include the 1780 Battle of King’s Mountain and the 1781 Battle of Cowpens (both conflicts taking place in South Carolina). Yet, as the British erected numerous military fortifications on Long Island (and in NYC, alike), precisely along Long Island’s north shore, the Brits successfully (and infamously) launched several destructive raids upon southern and coastal New England. These raids took place specifically at New Haven, Fairfield, and Norwalk, Connecticut, where Colonel William Tryon and his 70th Regiment of Foot violently employed scorched earth policy in those places, burning most of these evacuated towns to the ground. These attacks were launched from Fort Franklin (at Lloyd’s Neck, in Huntington, Long Island) in 1779. The main (and third) function of these British attacks in southern Connecticut was to terrorize the local patriots into supporting Crown law and policy, as well as to draw out Washington’s main force of bluecoat warriors (from the Hudson Valley, in New York) into an open pitched field battle. Both motivations badly backfired on Tryon and his barbaric horde of recoats. Washington and his Continentals never took the bait. <br /><br /> Such British military incursions by Tryon prompted American General George Washington and his Head of Continental Army Intelligence. Major Benjamin Tallmadge, to strike back at British military strongholds on Long Island to subvert, curb, and even eliminate Great Britain’s military presence in Long Island’s vast Suffolk County. Washington’s famed and very arcane Culper Spy Ring covertly organized Tallmadge’s secret assaults, both on Long Island’s north and south shores. Culper Spy Ring cell leader Abraham Woodhull (under Tallmadge’s careful guidance) successfully and shrewdly inspected British Forts Franklin and Saint George (at Huntington and Mastic, respectively, in Suffolk County) and provided (in advance) valuable inside information on those forts’ troop numbers, layouts and weaponry. Tallmadge and his Culper Spy Ring associate, whale-boatman Caleb Brewster, then proceeded to badly maul and imprison Fort Franklin’s garrison and attack boats in 1779 at Lloyd’s Neck, taking many redcoats and Tory militiamen hostage and burning all of Fort Franklin’s barracks to the ground. However, the Americans' fearsome onslaught could not destroy the main fort of Franklin’s garrison. Tallmadge’s first great amphibious raid against the British on Long Island resulted in no American casualties, and it was entirely facilitated by Brewster’s very skilled band of whaleboat mariners. Caleb Brewster was the most skilled sailor of this esteemed lot of whalers. Brewster’s men cleverly and stealthily navigated the dangerously British-patrolled waters of the fearsome Devil’s Belt (the Long Island Sound) repeatedly throughout the American Revolution to steal military supplies from British allies and boats on or situated near Long Island while also striking back against British-manned army forts. </p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in;"><br /></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhHKtKLO7wNaBqtior-GAXmsWCyuRAU5c5eoY0IbJElBOo4SmU16ikQ-_fc7fEcMr-HVYpmZkpMWX_jLZ081s15mXEQh5ovnEHffBCGt5z_ol_CX2H_FZb9E3DkgOuKTIDR6H6BfBsmtsvYIbNSfyi-V9mcxYx8Q7scfHD6b4sgrFZIOtK636fEtrv1oWOO/s695/Major%20Benjamin%20Tallmadge%20(ca.%201778).jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="695" data-original-width="574" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhHKtKLO7wNaBqtior-GAXmsWCyuRAU5c5eoY0IbJElBOo4SmU16ikQ-_fc7fEcMr-HVYpmZkpMWX_jLZ081s15mXEQh5ovnEHffBCGt5z_ol_CX2H_FZb9E3DkgOuKTIDR6H6BfBsmtsvYIbNSfyi-V9mcxYx8Q7scfHD6b4sgrFZIOtK636fEtrv1oWOO/s320/Major%20Benjamin%20Tallmadge%20(ca.%201778).jpg" width="264" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Major Benjamin Tallmadge, c 1778</td></tr></tbody></table><br />Tallmadge led an even more successful (second) amphibious assault against British Fort Saint George in the autumn of 1780 at Mastic in southern Brookhaven Town. This he carried out again with the help of Brewster’s Sea Raiders and again with his own revered and very effective Second Continental Light Dragoons, from southern Connecticut, as the American task force’s place of origin. Major Benjamin Tallmadge’s sting operation against Fort Saint George netted some fifty redcoat prisoners, vast supplies of British food and money, and spices, as well. Tallmadge and his approximately eighty-man crew of destroyers right to cinders, including several British supply ships anchored in the nearby Great South Bay, burned the imposing and well-designed Fort Saint George. Tallmadge (as part of this exact raid) then proceeded to destroy Britain’s entire stock of hay at Coram (also at Brookhaven, in Suffolk County), incinerating 300 tons or more of British cavalry fuel in the process. This latter maneuver by Tallmadge left England’s General Henry Clinton and his legions of British infantrymen and horses entirely marooned in NYC for the whole winter of 1780-1781 by depriving the British Army of any means to march outside New York City and Long Island. It also tremendously damaged British morale in lower New York State (or Colony, depending on how you look at Revolutionary War history). This expedition by the Americans against the British was also carried out with minimal loss of American life.<br /><br />Major Benjamin Tallmadge and his Second Continental Light Dragoons, along with Brewster’s Sea Raiders, would make another victorious (and third) amphibious attack (in October 1781) against the redcoats at British Fort Slongo (also called <i>Salonga</i>) near present-day Northport, New York, in Smithtown, Long Island. Fort Slongo was located on Long Island’s north shore. The small thirty-man British garrison there was defeated in battle by their American foes, and their Fort Slongo was destroyed by Tallmadge and his men. This operation (against the British) was carried out again without any loss of American lives. The whole British Army garrison was taken prisoner and (as in the successful American assault on Fort Saint George the previous autumn) dragged in shackles back to southern Connecticut. This American victory versus the British, carried out by both Tallmadge and Brewster, resulted from a well-coordinated surprise attack. British morale in NYC and on Long Island plummeted even further by the loss of Fort Slongo (a minor defeat against the British forces), which was even more bolstered by Britain’s catastrophic (and concurrent) loss to Washington and the Continentals at Yorktown, Virginia. Britain’s days of ruling and occupying its thirteen North American colonies were swiftly ending.</div><div><br /></div><div>It must be noted in this article that no matter how effective Washington and Tallmadge’s efforts were to undo and end Britain’s occupation of Long Island, from 1776 through 1783, the Americans could only <i>disrupt</i> and <i>mitigate</i> England’s presence in New York City and its suburbs to the east. The United Kingdom’s military and Tory political machine in NYC and on Long Island would still be firmly and violently entrenched in these places, and with Britain’s control came a definitive and enduring plague of graft, scandal, brutality, and murder. </div><div> <br /><br /><b> Part 2: History as Documentation…</b><br /><br />David M. Griffin’s <i>Chronicles of the British Occupation of Long Island</i> (publisher: <i>The History Pres</i>s, 2023) probes and explains much of this esoteric history of Revolutionary War-era New York by including not only many actual examples of socio-economic hardship that Britain imposed on Long Islanders during the American Revolution, but Griffin’s book includes specific real-life historical specimens of British and Tory abuse of Long Island’s population, via the pulling of British military, economic and political puppet strings.<br /><br />Griffin tells (on page 48) the story of one financially blessed (patriot) Captain Solomon Davis of Miller Place, who, in the midst of the British Army’s (1776) advance from NYC to eastern Suffolk County, swiftly but competently, buried £ 500 sterling, under a large rock in his backyard, secretly hiding a big chunk of his personal wealth from British clutches. Capt. Davis was successful, but David Griffin reports the captain died during The War for Independence and that his fortune went undiscovered for nearly a century after, until a later landowner (named Horace Hudson) who claimed Davis’ property sometime in the late 1800s, recovered Davis’ missing treasure for his own. <br /><br />Griffin also tells the tragic tale (on pages 53-54) of a distant cousin of Solomon Davis, a man of much coin named Goldsmith Davis, of Coram, just a few miles south of Miller Place in Brookhaven. </div><div><br /></div><div>Goldsmith Davis was a patriotic American who hid his family (and presumably much of his money) in some local woods. British troops came near his home, pilfering from the houses of New York patriots in Davis’ neighborhood. Goldsmith Davis took the wise precaution of securing his family’s life and personal security ahead of the marauders' unwelcome visitation to his home. Goldsmith stayed behind to meet the ransacking redcoats and to protect his property from them.</div><div><br />Upon finding the feisty Goldsmith Davis present in his house, the British evidently could not find much of value there. After not being successful in obtaining loot and information about Davis’ stash of money, his British redcoat intruders forced him into his home’s attic, tethered his body to overhead rafters, and bayonetted him. Goldsmith Davis subsequently died by exsanguination from his injuries in his attic, where his family later found his murdered remains. The British Army was directly responsible for his death. David M. Griffin reports the spot where Goldsmith Davis bled out (in his attic) was reputedly marked by his spilt blood. </div><div><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in;"><br /><br /><b>Part 3: History as Irony…</b><br /><br />Both Solomon Davis and Goldsmith Davis (as my own historical research indicates) were direct descendants of the infamous Puritan Long Island settler Faulke Davis, who came from Wales to the shores of the New World in the 1630s, initially helping to found the village of Easthampton. Faulke Davis was driven out of Easthampton because of the nefarious witch trial he caused to take place there (in the 1650s) by making false accusations against one of his female Easthampton neighbors. The accused witch (one Goody Garlick) was found not guilty, and in the aftermath of her trial, Faulke moved west, “up the Island,” to Brookhaven Town, where he bought much land for his many Davis sons to farm. The Davis family lived on land bought initially by their shady progenitor in places such as Coram, Mount Sinai, Setauket, and more distant Queens County. Faulke Davis’ kinfolk thrive in Suffolk County to our very day. Unlike their long-lived and scandalous patriarch and ancestor Faulke, the Davis clan lived their lives smartly and morally. None of Faulke Davis’ progeny were ever to be named after him before, during, or after the Am<span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; text-indent: 0.5in;">erican Revolution. </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p> </p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in;"><br /><b>Part 4: The Historical Detective…</b><br /><br />David Griffin continues to tell his many more riveting tales of American Revolutionaries who were victimized by British hands-on Long Island. Another example is the frightening and factual yarn (on pages 66-67) of one Private Robert Silby of the Seventeenth British Light Dragoons. Private Silby was slain while robbing a Yankee home in October 1780. His British superiors seized his dead body from the Hempstead home immediately after his death. Griffin tells us Silby’s body was forced into iron tethers. The British also barbarically placed Silby’s head inside an iron harness. Historian Griffin sadly notes that the British Army then attached Private Silby’s desecrated corpse from a high overhead tree branch, leaving it dangling in the air by its caged head. The British did this (according to Griffin) to terrorize British redcoats and local Hempstead Tories and patriots, both from pillaging civilians out living on Long Island. <br /><br />History has proven Griffin’s assertions as accurate. In 1935, David Griffin tells us, a 5-year-old Hempstead boy, who was playing atop a sand pile, discovered Robert Silby’s skeletal remains. Silby’s head and neck were still found bound in their iron prisons. Silby’s cadaver was left partially exposed in the ground because of weathering. Nassau County forensic scientists were unable in 1935 to determine the cadaver’s proper identity. Thus, Long Island had a great mystery on its hands for about ninety years, which David M. Griffin solved circa 2021 by carefully reviewing American muster rolls and records from the Revolutionary War. Griffin’s solution to the Silby mystery was reinforced by sound historical investigation and factually accurate information. Griffin’s historical discoveries and solutions are superb achievements as far as historical research and writing are concerned. Nothing more needs to be said with respect to them.<br /><br />Griffin’s 2023 <i>Chronicles of the British Occupation of Long Island</i> are one of the most revealing, thorough, and intriguing historical studies about New York State's history of the Revolutionary War ever written. Griffin’s excellent book is devoid of any wasteful purple prose. David M. Griffin boldly and precisely brings to light many unknown and fascinating instances and accounts of patriots, Tories, bluecoats, and redcoats colliding with meteoric ferocity on a small island, 120 miles long and roughly 20 miles wide, motivated by idealistic, ethical, selfish and criminal emotions alike. I cannot tell of the sheer vastness of sociological complexity and elaboration that Griffin succinctly relates in his book about late eighteenth-century Long Island history. Still, he does so in brilliant historical detail and great variation of narrative perspective, that it forms a historical habitation and architecture of formidable depth and vivacity, lacking in many contemporary books of history. I strongly recommend David Griffin’s <i>Chronicles of the British Occupation of Long Island</i> as a must-read for serious students of history and enthusiastic history buffs alike. <br /><br /> </p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><b><br /><br />About the Author: Michael Mauro DeBonis is a poet and a historian from Long Island, New York. A graduate of both Suffolk County Community College (A. A. in Liberal Studies) and of SUNY Stony Brook (B. A. in English literature), Michael’s work first appeared in <i>The Village Beacon</i> <i>Record</i> and in<i> The Brookhaven Times</i> Newspapers. Michael’s latest writing (poetry and prose) may be found in <i>The Lyric Magazine</i> and <i>The New York History Review</i>. Mr. DeBonis is dedicated to studying and learning about the history of the great State of New York. <br /><br /> </b><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in;"> <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in;"> <o:p></o:p></p></div></div>DLJhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14674534926004739081noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3330136066649493860.post-4616351683891591602023-12-28T08:49:00.000-08:002024-03-07T09:41:45.819-08:00A CASE FOR REPARATIONS: THE GEOPOLITICAL EVOLUTION OF ENSLAVEMENT AND ITS ABOLITION IN NEW YORK STATE<p><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><b><br /></b></span></p><p><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><b>By <a href="mailto:llstew_98@yahoo.com" target="_blank">L. Lloyd Stewart</a></b></span></p><p><b>Copyright ©2023 All rights reserved by the author.</b></p><p><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br /></span></p><p><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Recent articles</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">[1]</span></a></span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> have reported finding burial sites of formerly enslaved Africans in upstate New York and enslaved quarters sequestered in a southern New York State farmhouse dating back to the 1700s. It is anticipated that these finds are archeological clues to New York State’s little-known history of enslavement. These findings are of personal interest, however, because a good portion of my family history is grounded in New York State, going back as far as the early 1700s.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Historians and New Yorkers alike have had difficulty associating New York State’s brand of enslavement, which they have concluded to be of a rather benevolent and mild nature, with the “barbarism” that anti-enslavement advocates and historians have proven existed in the southern states of America. Historians have juxtaposed enslavement’s existence in New York with an early period of colonization far removed from the consciousness and mentality of freedom-fighting colonialists or antebellum northern liberals. The abolition of enslavement in the North, particularly in New York State, has been depicted as a natural occurrence and removed from Southern attempts to fight its implementation</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">[2]</span></a></span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> at all costs. Further, historians have eulogized the colorblind nature of the Dutch colonial and early New York State enslavers to purport a system of enslavement in New York that was more akin to the European system of “Indentured Servitude.”</span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br /><br /></span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Unlike other states, the abolition of enslavement was never included in New York State’s Constitution. This inaction has led many historians, scholars, statesmen, and the general public to assume and conclude that enslavement if it existed at all in the state, was not extensive enough to require a constitutional ban on its continuance. The assumption that Africans and their descendants lived in a state of “quasi-freedom” for a twenty-five-year period until their actual emancipation is the prevailing mantra of today’s historians and writers. These perceptions and the belief that enslavement died an uneventful death in New York scurrilously distort historical facts.</span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br /><br /></span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Even after efforts on the part of African American and other historians to collect the personal narratives of enslaved life in New York and the South, white historians, like Ulrich B. Phillips, either discounted the validity of these accounts or saw them as peripheral to what they believed to be enslavement’s more significant meaning in American life -- its role in the coming of the Civil War.</span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br /><br /></span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">This Project will serve to clarify some of the misleading “facts” about the history of enslavement and its abolition in New York State. Specifically, I plan to document the history of enslavement in New York under the Dutch and its later administration under British and American rule using manuscripts, books, journal articles, personal narratives, legislative documents, and court and county records. I will also use an analysis of enslaved life in New York State, early attitudes toward enslavement, the resistance of the enslaved toward this system of oppression, the general conditions of life in New York State, the role of the state in the institution of enslavement and the final abolition of enslavement, as a basis for a more “fact-based” accounting of enslavement and abolition in New York. This method will be used due to the recent “passing” of a generation of first-hand participants (formerly enslaved) during this past century.</span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br /><br /></span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Through the production of this project, I expect to prove that the perception of the comparative “benign” nature of enslavement in New York State was a false concept and that the system of enslavement in New York State mirrored the system as it was instituted and practiced in the southern region of the colonies and later in the republic.</span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br /><br /></span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">I contend that the State of New York, in every respect, was a “Slave State” of the caliber and dedication documented in the colonial and antebellum South, and it was engaged in a thirty-year effort to circumvent and deprive Africans and their descendants of actual (legalized) emancipation. I intend to prove that enslavement’s existence in New York State could not have existed for as long as it did, nor could it have sustained or benefited the state as much as it did without the full and complete participation of both public and private governing bodies.</span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br /><br /></span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Lastly, I will document New York State’s active involvement and complicity in the institutional administration and support of enslavement and the bondage of Africans and their descendants. This insight into the involvement of state and local government in the institution, administration, and financial support of chattel enslavement in New York State will expose America and New York’s efforts to consciously institute a racial system of inferiority and subjugation at the expense of Africans and their descendants. Further, it will illustrate New York State’s involvement in a conspiracy with its resident enslavers to prolong inevitable abolition by developing a means of compensating enslavers for emancipated enslaved Africans.</span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br /><br /></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">The Humanitarian purpose of this Project is to, at the very least, provoke a new awareness and understanding of the efforts now being initiated by Africans and African descendants to advocate for reparations for “crimes against humanity” perpetrated during the two centuries that New York State was engaged in the forced bondage of African descendent men, women, and children.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br clear="all" /><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">INTRODUCTION</span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">When people remark that there is often some truth concealed in the myths and legends of the past, it is not at all difficult to comprehend the substance of this statement. When a history student attempts to seek the truth of any historical happenstance, we first search for the writings of that period, the historical record. We search for the “history,” as it is called. However, when we analyze the process of writing history, we realize that history is often an exercise in personification. That is to say - history assumes the human characteristics of the author who interprets it. History often inherits the personality of its writers. It reflects his/her likes and dislikes, cultural worldview, and, unfortunately, their prejudices and fears.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Similarly, witnesses to a crime interpret what they have seen according to their frame of reference, as historians interpret history. It is common to experience a trial when each witness presents a different version of the same crime. Or, more importantly, differing aspects of the same crime. This is not to say that the resulting testimony is useless. On the contrary, each version enables the complete truth to become clearer. Much like a puzzle, each piece brings us closer to the final truth, the completed picture. So, history is like a puzzle, too. However, all too often, one version of history is allowed to serve as “the” only valid or acceptable truth, to the suppression and detriment of any contrary version or interpretation, regardless of its scholarly methodology.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Labeling any contrary or differing view of accepted historical events as “revisionist” history has become a common practice. This writer observes that in many instances of African and African American history, the accepted or mainstream version proves to be “revisionist” in both its interpretation and presentation.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br />These varying expressions of methodology frequently depict a false or half-truth history to embellish our past good or honorable deeds or actions. We, thus, minimize and dehumanize ourselves when we fall victim to these often unconscious attempts at falsifying history. This process forces us to become not “seekers of the truth” but purveyors of fallacy. This historical methodology is designed to make us more comfortable with our past deeds and actions. Our history becomes nothing more than a myth or legend itself. It assumes the character of modern-day “spinning.’ The result is that true history suffers. It now contains only some truth, and we have lost the real essence of historical remembrance.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br />More shockingly, we realize that men and their personal or collective cultural agendas can gain control of “History,” thus twisting and shaping it to suit their personal and cultural worldviews. History becomes nothing more than a propaganda tool used to sway public opinion. Thus, in the case of people of African descent, we find ourselves “enslaved” a second time by the prejudices, fears, and xenophobia of individuals and national agendas that may have existed centuries ago. We cannot set new directions and aspirations for our people due to this flawed historical memory and its deficiency of fundamental truth.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;">We have all heard the adage that history repeats itself, yet we cannot avoid repeating prior mistakes because of these corrupt interpretations of history. People cannot exist on fallacy and fiction any more than a person can exist on a history slanted toward good deeds and accomplishments and completely lacking in the mistakes and wrongdoings of the past.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;">I have opened my paper with this introduction for two reasons: first, to set the stage for the readers to comprehend better what follows with an open mind. Second, and most importantly, to state the reasons by which the history of an entire race of people can be corrupted by myths and fallacies propitiated by the prejudices and fears of a people who only wished for their subjugation. No intelligent human being can deny that the history of the Black man in both Africa and the Americas has been obscured by prejudices and fears, manifesting themselves in untold numbers of myths surrounding the heritage, culture, intelligence, courage, determination, and abilities of Africans and their descendants. This paper aims to effectively and with scholarly intent address the myths of enslavement and its abolition in New York State and provide a documented framework for a “Case for Reparations against New York State.”</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;">The articles that I referenced earlier in the work have, in varying degrees, inspired the writing of this paper. One of these articles explains the role of Africans and their descendants in this historical period. At the same time, the other distorts the history of this period and the circumstances surrounding the lives of African descendants in New York State.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">This paper is, then, an attempt to clarify some of the misleading pronouncements depicting the history of enslavement and its abolition in New York State. Specifically, I will deal with the issue of the perception of the comparative “benign” nature of enslavement in New York State in relation to the corresponding system that flourished in the southern colonies and states of the Union before, during, and after the War of Independence. I will also examine the nature and substance of abolition and the anti-enslavement movement in New York State.</span></p><div><p style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">To accomplish this mission, I will provide a brief history of enslavement in the geographical territory now known as New York under the Dutch, as well as its later administration under British and American rule. I will elaborate on the living conditions of enslaved Africans in New York, the early attitudes toward enslavement, the resistance of enslaved Africans toward this system of oppression, the general conditions of life in New York State, the anti-enslavement movement, and the role of the state, in its financial and legislative support of enslavement and its final abolition.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Finally, I conclude that the system of enslavement in New York State merely mirrored the system as it was instituted and practiced in all regions of the colonies and later in the republic and that the State of New York actively participated in the institution and support of enslavement and development and implementation of a system of institutional-based racial discrimination.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br /></span></p><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><hr align="center" size="0" width="100%" /></span></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">ENSLAVEMENT IN NEW YORK</span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif" style="text-transform: uppercase;">D</span></b><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">UTCH COLONIZATION AND ENSLAVEMENT<o:p></o:p></span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">“The introduction of Black labor in the middle colonies originates in the trade rivalry of the Atlantic during the seventeenth century. The rivalry between the Netherlands and Spain placed the former in possession of Blacks and territory where Black labor was profitable. The Dutch sought to increase commerce by enhancing the production of their possessions. Thus, this situation created a need for labor in those places. From the desire to establish firm and absolute control of Atlantic commerce came the elements necessary to make slavery possible in New Netherlands”</span></b><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[3]</a></span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">At the end of its conflicts with Spain, culminating in the 1609 truce, the Dutch turned their attention to gaining Spanish possessions in the New World. With the formation of the Dutch East India Company in 1602, the Dutch had achieved “phenomenal success” in the Far East. Given this history of success, merchants and capitalists in the Netherlands obtained permission to establish the Dutch West India Company with visions of similar success and profits. They had hoped to strip Spain of their New World possessions as they had Portugal in the Far East with the Dutch East India Company.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[4]</a><br /><br />In 1621, the States General of the United Provinces of the Netherlands (Dutch Republic) chose to grant a monopoly to a trading company to colonize the newly discovered lands in America. There was a concern that the new colonies needed a permanent political presence to protect the Dutch commercial and other interests against the possibility of English, French, or Spanish challenges. That year, the newly incorporated Dutch West India Company (the ‘Oude” Company) obtained a twenty-four-year trading monopoly along the west coast of Africa (below the Tropic of Cancer) and the West Indies and sought to have the New Netherland<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[5]</a> area formally recognized as a province. Their mandate was “to maintain armies and fleets, to build forts and cities, to carry on war, to make treaties of peace and commerce.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[6]</a> This charter was renewed in 1647 for another twenty-five years. The provincial status was granted in June 1623, and the Dutch West India Company began organizing the first permanent settlement in New Netherland. <br /><br />In 1624, the first wave of settlers departed from their home country of Holland. Additional ships sailed for New Netherland with colonists, livestock, and supplies in the following years. The uniqueness of this venture was that the New Netherland Colony was a company-owned and operated business that was run on a for-profit basis by the directors of the Dutch West India Company. The mission of the business was to make a profit for the investors who had purchased shares in the company. In its first half-century, it was directed by five “chambers” of shareholders: the Amsterdam Chamber held four-ninths of the shares; Zeeland two-ninths; Maas (Rotterdam, Schiedam, etc.) one-ninth; the Northern Quarter one-ninth; and the Chamber of Stad en Landen (Groningen and Friesland) one-ninth. Each chamber had several directors who, in turn, elected a council to run the Company. The states-general of the Netherlands appointed the chairman, making nineteen council members. A new charter granted in 1675 reduced the number of the council to ten, now known as the “Assembly of Ten.” Each chamber was responsible for a different proportion of the capital and enjoyed corresponding control over the enterprise. The Amsterdam chamber was dominant, for it owned most of the capital. Part of the capital for the Company’s endeavors came from public funds. This group of directors also operated the Company’s colony in Guiana.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[7]</a><br /><br />The Company paid skilled persons, doctors, and craftsmen to relocate to New Netherland. It sent soldiers for the military protection of the colony. It built forts and provided the settlers with provisions. It must be understood that company employees carried out all the responsibilities one would associate with government or public service. However, the difficulties associated with establishing and expanding a new colony were considerable. To increase their profit margin, the company subcontracted these responsibilities to Patroons, who were given large land grants and jurisdictional rights over the colonists, but the Dutch West India Company retained ultimate authority.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[8]</a> Thus, a landed aristocracy came to control the economic activities of the colony in partnership with the trading class, which owned the Dutch West India Company.<br /><br />The charter that was granted to the Dutch West India Company serves to illustrate the prototype for what was called the “Triangle Trade” in the 16th to 19th centuries. The Company, based in Holland, now armed with trading and colonization rights in both America and Africa, instituted a process of enslavement that involved the interaction of two major economic systems. The capitalists who represented the company were the shipping owners, controlled the colonies' provisions, and were the shipping employees and the military personnel who implemented and enforced their policies. The Enslaver class (Patroons, southern Aristocrat land owners, etc.) exploited and supervised enslavement directly and derived their power from the Company. The capitalist merchant traders purchased agricultural materials from the enslaved-owning class and used these products in exchange for captured Africans. They were transported to New Netherland, where they were exchanged for money. The profits were then shared with the capitalist owners of the company, and the remainder was used to purchase more agricultural products for more “slave- trading.” Only in the New World did enslavement provide the labor force for a high-pressure, profit-making capitalist system of agriculture production for distant markets.<br /><br />African American history in New York State began with the Dutch colonization of North America and the introduction of 11 enslaved Africans into New Netherland between 1625 and 1626.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[9]</a> Under the “Patroonship” arrangement, New Netherland continued to expand with more colonists, settlements, and enslaved Africans. Included in the “Freedom, Privileges and Exemption” of the Patron class were:<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">“In like manner, the incorporated West India Company shall allot to each patron twelve men and women out of the prize in which Negroes shall be found for the advancement of the colonies of New Netherlands.”</span></b><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[10]</a></span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">The “Colonial Records” illustrate that this number was increased several times and topped out to “as many as possible.”[11] By 1640, there were 1,600 Africans in North America, with almost a third in Dutch New Netherland. From the time of the Dutch occupation, when it was called New Amsterdam, virtually until the end of the American Revolution, New York City was the enslavement capital of Colonial America<b>.<br /><br /></b>The Dutch first realized the profit-making advantages of large numbers of enslaved Africans in 1646, when a shipload of enslaved Africans was purchased from Tamandar’e on the coast of Brazil. They were sold for pork and peas on the company’s account.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[12]</span></a> The majority of those enslaved did not remain in New Netherland but were sold to the South. The Dutch West India Company quickly realized the favorable circumstances of this “foreign” labor base to cope with the growing labor shortage in New Netherland. Henry Wysham Lanier in <u>Greenwich Village: Today and Yesterday </u>recounts a company director’s communiqué from Amsterdam:<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">“We have seen that more Negroes could be advantageously employed and sold there (New Amsterdam) than the ship Tamandar’e brought. We shall take care that in the future, a greater number of negroes be taken there.”</span></b><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[13]</a></span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">The demand for labor during the colonial period far outran the supply of European workers. The company's strategy was to send farm produce to Angola, their primary resource for captured Africans, and then transport them back to New Netherland to work in cultivating the land.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[14]</span></a> Governor Pieter Stuyvesant of New Netherland requested that Dutch traders import their human cargoes directly from the West Coast of Africa to New Amsterdam to supply local farmers and English colonies north and south of the port. Local artisans, merchants, and frontier farmers eagerly bought enslaved captives, spreading the popularity of enslavement throughout Dutch colonial society.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[15]<br /></span></a><br />Enslaved Africans worked as farmers and builders and in the fur trade of the Dutch West India Company. Their involvement in the fur trade yielded immediate and substantial profits.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[16]</span></a> Some of those enslaved helped build the wall intended to keep settlers safe from the Native American populations at the location of today's Wall Street. They were also the first New York City maintenance workers. The Dutch West India Company’s strategy was to import parcels (10-20) of enslaved Africans to work on farms, public buildings, and military works for which free workers were not available.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[17]</span></a>The Company also guaranteed the safety and stability of enslavement by passing “fugitive slave” ordinances. Even given these assurances, the Dutch settlers did not become enslavers at the rate anticipated by the Company. This led the Company to become the largest enslaver in New Netherlands. The Company, always directed by the need to create profit, chose to create a new profit center by leasing its enslaved Africans to surrounding farmers and businesses. Thus, it established a market for the more than 300 enslaved Africans owned by the Company.<br /><br />With the initial arrival of Africans circa 1625-1626, laws or codes did not establish their legal status. They seemed to exist in a “twilight zone between indentured servants and clear-cut enslavement.” In the 1620s and 1630, Blacks were referred to as enslaved, but the 1640s saw the appearance of “half-free” and Free Blacks.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[18]<br /></span></a><br />Trade and shipping were the economic engines that powered the Dutch colony. However, their fortifications remained unfinished even with dividends up to 50 percent of their investments in some years.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[19]</span></a> The Dutch were also very protective of their investment in human capital and often used the political powers of their colony to discourage any attempts to alter their monopoly on enslaved labor. One example of this resolve occurred in New Amsterdam, where the Dutch initiated the first sales tax: "An import tax of 10% was imposed to discourage merchants from selling ‘human cargo’ outside the colony.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[20]</span></a> It was during this period that the West India Company chose to abandon its monopoly on trade in goods, deciding to share the expenses and risks associated with trade by opening commerce to merchants of all friendly nations and subject to a 10% import duty, a 15% export duty and restricting all shipping to West India Company ships.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[21]</span></a>Chief among these trading commodities was enslaved labor. This strategy resulted in expansion and the establishment of settlements in what is now New Jersey, on Staten Island, and in what is now the Bronx.<br /><br />By 1656, the Company reversed its attitude towards the existing land-grant policy. The Company began to view the granting of patroonships as inadvisable and injurious to the increase in population. It decided to grant private persons as much land as they could cultivate without giving them privileges. The result of this action was an increase in the population of New Netherland from an estimated 2,000 to 3,500 in 1655 to 9,000 in 1664.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[22]</span></a> During this period under Dutch rule, New Netherland evolved from a trading post to a full-fledged colony. As colonial wealth and economy grew, so did the requirements for a correspondingly larger labor force. Unlike southern colonial provinces, New York had a highly diversified enslaved workforce geared to the needs of a mixed economy, and they populated the entire colony.<br /><br />Up to the middle of the 18<sup>th</sup> century, most of the enslaved were to be found in the counties bordering New York harbor -- Queens, Kings, Richmond, New York—and Westchester County. Approximately seventy-four percent (74%) of the enslaved in New York in 1703 resided in this area, while more than sixty percent (60 %) were located there a half-century later.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[23]</span></a> In this part of the colony, farmers became prosperous because of the presence of a nearby market, and they began to invest in enslavement. The development of large “plantations” in and around this New York City area led to the continuation of an “Enslaver Class,” who used enslavement to stabilize their station in life. Aristocracy and enslavement were closely related in colonial New York.<br /><br />It can be argued that the more significant stimulant to enslavement by this aristocracy was the social prestige derived from the ownership of a large number of enslaved Africans. “In its history, New York was perhaps the most aristocratic of all the colonies.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[24]</span></a> The Upper Hudson Valley colonists’ preference for fur trading rather than agriculture accounts for their lagging in their enslaved population during this period. In technical skill and versatility, African and African descendant workers spanned the whole range of free labor<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[25]</span></a>. They were vital in transforming an unstable Dutch outpost into a rich and powerful state.” ‘<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[26]</span></a> Thirty years after the first settlement at New Amsterdam, the population of some 1,000 proved surprisingly heterogeneous, with one-fifth of the total Negroes, enslaved and freemen.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[27]<br /></span></a><br />Unlike the British settlements in New England, the persons largely responsible for exploiting New Netherland’s resources were merchants from the home country who controlled the colony’s lifeline to Holland. Profits from their enterprises flowed into Amsterdam, thus depriving New Netherland of capital and the ability to develop a viable colony-based merchant community. This lack of economic independence was one of the reasons the Dutch colony in Manhattan was headed toward failure from its very beginning.</span><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[28]</a></span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">“Since profit-making was the major focus of colonial [Dutch] administration, the fluctuating fortunes of the company’s imperial interests rather than the needs of New Amsterdam’s economy and community guided the formation of policy.”<span style="color: purple; font-family: Garamond, serif;"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[29]</a></span></span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br /></span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">In addition, despite the substantial increase in the price of enslaved Africans between 1636 and 1664, the West India Company did not profit greatly from the New Netherland trade. Higher prices prevailed in the plantation colonies; the enslaved Africans supplied to New Netherland sold at a discount (10%) below the international market.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[30]</span></a> The same amount as the export duty was levied in 1655 to prevent the diversion of enslaved Africans to the plantation colonies.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Essentially, the difference between these Dutch New Netherland merchants and the merchants in the British colonies, such as the Hancocks of Boston, was that the New Netherland merchants primarily worked at the local level and never controlled foreign trade. “The Dutch West India Company’s control of the participation of New Amsterdam merchants in the trade similarly was geared towards reaping advantage for the company.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[31]</span></a> The ability to independently trade with one’s sovereign nation is critical to economic competitiveness. They traded independently when possible, but more frequently, they were employed as agents or suppliers for the major Dutch trading firms. Oliver Rink in <u>Holland on the Hudson</u> has identified four firms that controlled more than 50% of the New Netherland to Holland trade from 1640 through the Dutch era. These four firms were the merchant houses of Kiliaen van Rensselaer, Gilles and Seth Verbrugge, Dirck and Abel de Wolff, and Gillis van Hoornbeeck. These four companies worked together to control most of the profits from the New Netherland trade.<br /><br /><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">BRITISH OCCUPATION AND ENSLAVEMENT IN NEW YORK</span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">Great Britain and the Dutch Republic emerged as the principal maritime powers of the seventeenth century. Their rivalry led them into several wars, in which the issue at stake was ultimately the freedom of the seas and the control of world trade.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><br />The first Anglo-Dutch war was fought entirely at sea and ended in a compromise after two years of fighting. It was also related to the English Navigation Act of 1651, which was directed against Dutch trade with British possessions. The second war, 16654-67, was directed at English commercial supremacy, especially in the East Indian trade and the West African trade. This war involved raids on Dutch colonies in Africa, the disruption of shipping along the Dutch coast, and an attack on British ships on the Thames. In response to Dutch actions, Charles II of England formally annexed New Netherland as a British province. A fleet of British ships was sent to seize the colony. The British take-over was a function of these international wars (among the emerging European capitalist states) to conquer the “New World” as a basis for the accumulation of “primitive” capital.</span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">“Whatever the balance of power in Europe, on the North American continent, the subjects of the Netherlands were in a disadvantaged position.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[32]</a></span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">Governor Pieter Stuyvesant surrendered Fort Amsterdam, and Fort Orange capitulated in September 1664. The loss of the New Netherland province led to a second Anglo-Dutch war during 1665-1667. This conflict ended with the Treaty of Breda in August of 1667, in which the Dutch relinquished their claim to New Netherland, now New York, and Delaware, in exchange for Surinam, off the coast of Brazil.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[33]</a> After several additional skirmishes for control of the colony, the Treaty of Westminster in 1674 ended the conflict, and the British maintained control of New York.<br /><br />For African New Yorkers, both enslaved and free, British occupation meant severe change. Under Dutch rule, some Africans had gained half or full freedom. Even if enslaved, they had legal and social rights, yet given these accomplishments, the Dutch could not be described as completely colorblind. Africans and African descendants who could not produce, on demand, proof of their status were always in danger of being re-enslaved.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[34]</a> This and other social policies changed under British rule. The legalization of enslavement in 1665 was the first example of this “New World Order” shift in colonial policy, with enslavement now redefined as an inherited racial status. The British brand of enslavement would soon result in terms of life enslavement as a rule and not the exception.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[35]</a></span><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"> </span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.5in 0in 76.5pt;"><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">“After 1664, Blacks were either free or enslaved. As far as the English were concerned, there was no middle ground by which Common Law could protect Blacks. Slaves became outright property with no rights, and they were governed as such. Colonists despised Free Blacks, but they were to be tolerated.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[36]</a></span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.5in 0in 76.5pt;"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">The British “conquest” of New Netherland laid the groundwork for making New York the most important enslaver colony and, later, state north of Maryland for a century and a half.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">“From the start of the English occupation, the creation of a commercially profitable enslaved system became a joint project of both government and private interests. Unlike the Dutch West India Company, which used enslavement to implement colonial policy, the Royal African Company used the colony to implement enslavement.”</span></b><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[37]</a></span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">The Dutch West India Company did not try to develop and implement a profitable trade but strove instead to promote the economic progress of the colony by keeping costs down. As Governor Pieter Stuyvesant saw it, the purpose of enslavement was “to promote and advance the population and agriculture of the province.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[38]</span></a> However, under British rule and the instructions of the Duke of York, the steady importation of enslaved Africans by every possible means served to stabilize the economy. </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">New York's first “Slave Market” during the British period was established at Wall Street and the East River in 1711. In the early 1700s, under British rule, there were 800 African men, women, and children in New York City, representing about 15% of the total</span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">population. Local and state documents did not distinguish between free and enslaved Africans until 1756. Before then, the term ‘enslaved’ was used to describe all Africans and their descendants. They were all looked upon as valuable sources of labor.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[39]</a></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">The horrendous journey of the “Middle Passage,” replete with chains, torture, hunger, starvation, disease, and death, was but an inkling of the fate that awaited these “innocents” in the New World. Whether in the West Indies or colonial America (North or South), scholars agree that life for these first Africans in America was harsh and full of isolation and alienation. Separations from their culturally grounded families, religion, history, and traditions were the circumstances that awaited them in the “New World.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[40]</a></span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">Europeans imported enslaved Africans partly for demographic reasons. As a result of epidemic diseases, which reduced the native population by 50-90 percent, the labor supply was insufficient to meet demand. Africans were experienced in intensive agriculture and raising livestock and knew how to raise crops like rice, which Europeans were unfamiliar with.</span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">The first generation of Africans in New World America tended to be remarkably cosmopolitan. Few of the first generation came directly from Africa. Instead, they arrived from the West Indies and other European settlement areas. These imported captives were often multilingual and had Spanish or Portuguese names.</span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">In New York, in particular, enslaved workers showed extreme proficiency in virtually every colonial and economic development field. Africans and their descendants in the various towns and villages of New York very often worked as coopers, tailors, sailors, bakers, tanners, goldsmiths, naval carpenters, blacksmiths, spinners, weavers, bolters, sail makers, millers, masons, candle makers, tobacconists, caulkers, carpenters, shoemakers, brush makers, glaziers, wheelwrights, tailors, butchers, metal workers, silversmiths and in the frame construction of houses. Their skills and experience in these trades matched those of white artisans in all areas. On Long Island, enslaved Africans were concentrated in production agriculture. Their ability to keep “plantations” in the north operating fully and efficiently was well documented.</span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><span style="color: purple; font-family: Garamond, serif;"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[41]</a></span><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">Their skills were of such value that their enslavers even rented (hired) them out to non-enslavers as a means of helping neighbors meet their labor requirements. Enslaved artisans and workers were of such skill and in such demand that there were instances where some enslaved Africans entered into contracts with their enslavers for special benefits relating to work days and holidays. These benefits were not made available to free white workers or bondsmen who were required to work seven (7) day weeks due to their “wage worker” status.</span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[42]</span></a></span><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"> Enslavement in the North and some respects in the South involved a constant process of negotiation as the enslaved bargained over the pace of work, the amount of free time, monetary rewards, access to garden plots, and the freedom to practice burials, marriages, and religious (non-Christian) ceremonies free from white oversight.</span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[43]</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">This aspect of enslavement in the North (the hiring out of one’s enslaved) and particularly in New York was the cornerstone upon which enslavement in New York continued to grow and impacted every aspect of the colony’s/state’s economy. With the establishment of the Market House at Wall St. in 1711, New York’s implementation of this “hiring” system grew to the point that it was unequaled in any of the other colonies with returns of between 10 to 30 percent annually on their market value.</span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[44]</span></a></span><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"> In upstate New York, on the large estates and manors, enslaved Africans were rented out to the tenants of the owner of the estates to increase tenant production and share the maintenance costs of the enslaved themselves.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[45]</a></span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">The “Slave Trade” became one of the cornerstones of New York’s commercial prosperity in the 18<sup>th</sup> century.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[46]</span></a> New York was the developing center of incipient American capitalism. Merchant capital sources resided there. In later years, the “Report on Manufactures” by Alexander Hamilton as Secretary of the Treasury would indicate that New York's hegemony in the traditional capitalist enterprises was well understood. Enslavement flourished in New York because of this redirected approach to farming and manufacturing and the scarcity of immigrant white workers. Enslavement also became a “cash cow” for the government of the colony. In 1734, the Colonial Assembly enacted a law that required a duty for every “Negro, Indian, and Malatta slaves owned in the Colony of New York to be used to build fortifications in anticipation of war<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[47]</span></a>.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Even the smallest of towns experienced enslavement’s curse. In small local towns like Waterford, New York, enslavement existed for centuries. <u>The History of Waterford</u> by Sydney Ernest Hammersly speaks of its existence in Chapter Twenty-two, “Slavery in Waterford’‘ Hammersley recounts the first arrival of enslaved Africans to Waterford as follows: “These unfortunates first came to our shores in the West India Company’s “slave ship” in 1647. They were sold for peas and pork.”<span style="color: purple; font-family: Garamond, serif;"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[48]</a></span><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">EARLY ATTITUDES ON ENSLAVEMENT</span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br /></span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">During the first century and a half of the African’s presence in colonial New York, whether ruled by the Dutch, the British, or Americans, few whites voiced public concern about the practice of chattel enslavement. Matthew T. Mellon wrote in his <u>Early American Views on Negro Enslavement</u>:<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">“Any student of the period must admit that with the occasional outbursts of honest indignation against slavery and the slave trade, there existed a great deal of moral indifference and unconcern which allowed this great social problem to develop.”</span></b><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[49]</a></span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">This attitude was directly linked to the fact that early colonists in New York and the other colonies “thought that the great natural resources of America were meant to be consumed and exploited as quickly and ruthlessly as possible.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[50]</span></a>It should also be noted that before 1750,</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><b><u>no</u></b><u> </u>church or religious sect condemned enslavement or the trading of enslaved Africans. “One fact seems certain: the church as an institution played a small role in obtaining freedom for Blacks.”<span style="color: purple; font-family: Garamond, serif;"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[51]</a></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">Africans did what they could to free themselves of this oppressive system, sometimes by escaping</span><a href="about://" style="color: purple; font-family: Garamond, serif;">[52]</a><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"> and other rudimentary and more sophisticated means, personally and collectively. The enslaved learned to work slowly, break tools, steal from their enslavers, poison animals, tell stories of resistance, and, in some cases, rebel with violence.</span><a href="about://" style="color: purple; font-family: Garamond, serif;">[53]</a><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">Whatever the effort, it was continuously thwarted by the society that bound them. Even though there were very few laws passed in the first twenty years of British occupation regulating the activity of those enslaved, it soon changed. These early laws were designed to restrict the contact of those enslaved with other whites, particularly with respect to socialization and the exercise of commerce.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><br />The year 1702 marked the beginning of categorizing Africans as separate from the mainstream colonial community. This law illustrates the attitude of colonial lawmakers to clarify the rights of enslavers over the enslaved and expressly establish the institutional acceptance of enslavers’ rights, which was passed in the New Jersey Assembly. It allowed the enslavers to punish the enslaved at their discretion, thus placing enslaved human beings outside of the rule of British Law.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[54]</a></span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">“Many of the laws which were passed in the early days of the republic were stimulated primarily by the fear of a Negro insurrection.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[55]</a></span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">A highly visible and powerful example of this effort to end African-inspired emancipation was highlighted in 1705 when the Colonial Assembly passed “An Act to Prevent the Running away of Negro Slaves out of the City and County of Albany to the French at Canada.” This law, also mentioned in the Hammersley book, mandated the penalty for being recaptured beyond forty miles north of Albany (Albany County) at or near Saratoga (Saratoga County) to be executed. This Law was enacted under the guise of protecting the Colony during their conflict with French Canada by ensuring that intelligence on the disposition of the Colony would not be communicated to the French. It appears that the colonists were so afraid of the possibility that enslaved Africans would defect to the French that they enacted legislation with a death penalty to discourage its possibility and/or continuance.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[56]<br /></a><br />The true purpose of this law becomes clearer when certain facts are brought to light. For example, the governing officials of the City and County of Albany had already convened to discuss this issue with its interesting proviso that fully addressed the fears that enslaved Africans would continue to leave their enslavers and seek refuge with the French. “Some have already done (so) which has and would be to the great loss & detriment of the Owner.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[57]</a> The law further requires that the enslaved, once recaptured, should be appraised and his/her value determined before trial by an Appraiser with the express purpose of assessing, levying, and collecting a tax to be paid to the Treasurer of Albany County by enslavers within the city and county. The Treasurer was then charged with defraying the expenses of the prosecution (not to exceed ten pounds), and the enslaver was then given the full value of his/her executed enslaved Africans or groups in accordance with the findings of the Appraiser. This provision was an effort to compensate the enslavers for the loss of their human property by means of execution).<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[58]<br /></a><br />Suppose we understand that the true intentions of governments are written in their budgets. In that case, it is obvious that the impetus for this legislation was the loss of enslaved Africans and not the fear of intelligence being acquired by the French. This Law provides an unimpeachable example of governmental complicity in the administration of enslavement in New York State. This state policy is further exemplified by the fact that in 1715, after the war with the French (as stated in the legislation), this law was “revived” because the 1705 law had served the City and County of Albany so well.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[59]</a> If its purpose was to eliminate the potential for intelligence being acquired by the French during the war, what is the need for “reviving” it <b><u>after</u></b> the war? Several scholars would have us believe that the fear and paranoia of the French by the colonists is, in fact, the reason for the revival of this legislation.<br /> <br />Nevertheless, the Legislation clearly states that the 1712 law “is Expired by its own Limitation, being only in force during the War with the French.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[60]</a> Given this explicit language, what logical reason would remain for “reviving” this law? Granted, the French were a constant threat, but then so were runaways. Economics seemed to motivate every other aspect of colonial life, so why not this?<br /> <br />This law served as the standard for other violations committed by enslaved Africans. “An Act for Preventing the Conspiracy of Slaves,” passed in 1708, speaks to the circumstances surrounding the murders of the William Hallet, Jr. family of New Town in Queens County. It appears that the family was attacked and killed by a group of their enslaved or other enslaved Africans. The Colonial Assembly passed this law to deter future acts against white citizens. If an enslaved African were to murder or attempt to murder any White citizen or Enslaver, their punishment would be death. This act was another reversal in the legal status of Blacks<b>. It was the first decree in New York that made the murder or attempted murder of Blacks not a crime.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[61]</a></b> Interestingly enough, Chapter 149 of the Laws of 1705, mentioned above, is referenced in this law with respect to compensating the enslaver or enslavers for the loss of their enslaved African or Africans by execution. This compensation was legislated not to exceed twenty-five pounds.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[62]<br /></a><br />It should be noted that these “Slave Codes” were not restricted to the city of New York. Upstate towns and villages actively participated in regulating the lives of their enslaved Africans, as well. In Albany, it seems that keeping Africans off the street was a serious problem for the town fathers. In 1686, an ordinance was passed that banned the driving of carts by Africans within the city limits. This ban did not apply to beer wagons. In 1733, the Common Council of Albany passed an ordinance “to prevent Negroes, Indians, and enslaved Africans from appearing in the streets after eight at night without a lantern and lighted candle in it.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[63]</a> Further, the Common Council twice passed an ordinance which stipulated:</span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">“And be it further ordained by the Authority aforesaid that no Negro or Indian slaves above the number of three do assemble to meet together on the Lord’s day or any other time, at any place from their slaveowner’s service, within the city and the liberties thereof, and that no such slave to go armed at any time with gun, sword, club or any other kind of weapon whatsoever penalty being whipt at the public whipping post fifteen lashes unless the slaveowner of such slave will pay six shillings to excuse the slave.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[64]</a></span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">Under British control, enslavement in New York and the other colonies grew at a tremendous and unprecedented rate. In 1698, there were 2,170 enslaved Africans in the New York Colony. By 1723, the African enslaved population by way of internal population and importations reached 6,171. Of this total, 2,395 were imported from Africa and the West Indies.</span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[65]</span></a></span><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"> By 1746, this number had grown to over 9,000 adults – the largest enslaved force in any English colony north of Maryland.</span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[66]</span></a></span><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"> In New York City, the enslaved population had grown to an all-time high of 20.9 percent of the city’s total population.</span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[67]</span></a> </span><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">“In 1746, Africans in Ulster County alone accounted for one of every five inhabitants.”</span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[68]</span></a></span><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">With this growth of enslavement in <b>all</b> the British colonies, lawmakers turned their attention to the regulation of the lives of the enslaved. The resulting “Slave Codes” routinely forbade teaching the enslaved to read and write, outlawed group gatherings outside of church and contact with free Blacks, and required the enslaved to carry passes.</span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[69]</span></a></span><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"> In addition, the British enacted numerous laws that restricted where Africans could be employed and how they could be freed. Laws were passed to prevent free Africans from aiding runaways. “The New York ‘Slave Codes’ grew so numerous that they are seen as a major cause of the 1712 Revolt.”</span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><span style="color: purple; font-family: Garamond, serif;"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[70]</a></span><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">RESISTANCE TO ENSLAVEMENT</span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">In this highly chronicled revolt, enslaved Africans and Native Americans gathered in an orchard on Maiden Lane with hatchets, guns, knives, and hoes and set out to burn and destroy property in the area. The sequence of events follows: The men set fire to a building in the middle of town, and the fire spread. While white colonists gathered to extinguish the blaze, the enslaved Africans attacked and then ran off. Nine whites were killed during the “revolt.” Twenty-one enslaved Africans were executed, and six were reported to have committed suicide.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[71]</a> The result was the enactment of stricter laws. No longer could more than two or three enslaved Africans gather together. A salaried “Whipper” could be hired to mete out punishments to any enslaved person caught gambling in public and any enslaved African handling a firearm; various other assorted violations would receive similar punishments.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[72]</a></span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">More specifically, involvement in a conspiracy to kill would result in execution, as would a rape. Restrictions and fines were placed on the socialization of “freemen” and enslaved Africans. There was even a law that discouraged enslavers from freeing enslaved Africans. Enslavers could free an enslaved African, but only after posting a bond of 200 [pounds]. This money would be paid to the formally enslaved African (that enslaved African could not support himself/ herself. This law was enacted due to the colonial’s belief that “the free Negroes of this Colony are an Idle slothful people and prove very often a charge on the place where they are.” More than twenty-eight statutes were included in a massive document entitled; “An Act for Preventing Suppressing and Punishing the Conspiracy and Insurrection of Negroes and Slaves.” The Colonial Assembly passed it on December 10, 1712 <a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[73]</a><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><br /></span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">The congregation of large numbers of “free and enslaved Blacks in the cities of the North would, however, “nurture movements and agitation for Black rights.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[74]</span></a> An otherwise forgotten fact concerning the demographics of New York City during the colonial period was that “New York was a biracial city from the outset. Social life and cultural norms reflected African as well as European influences.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[75]</span></a> This dynamic would appear to have laid the groundwork for resistance. A thorough knowledge of existing norms and culture juxtaposed with their unique means of communication and survival techniques would seem to place the Africans of New York City in an advantageous position for conspiracy. It has been documented that the harbor of New York City was ripe with roving bands of displaced Africans, “gangs” as they were called by the locals, both in the day and night. This backdrop would seem to inspire rebellion. Unless, of course, your reasoning is clouded by the oft-believed stereotypes of the docile and ignorant Black.<br /><br />Another well-documented example of African resistance and the true colonial attitude towards preserving the institution of enslavement occurred in New York City in 1741. By this date, approximately one in every five of Manhattan’s eleven thousand residents (11,000) was Black and, with rare exceptions, enslaved. In the entire province of New York, of the sixty thousand (60,000) residents, roughly nine thousand (9,000) were of African descent.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[76]</span></a> A panic was caused that year when authorities heard that “enslaved and free” African descendants, as well as whites, were accused of planning to burn the city and kill all other whites. Calling it the ‘Great Negro Plot,’ city leaders arrested 154 Blacks and 24 whites, accusing them of conspiracy. Thirty-one Africans were executed for being part of a revolutionary plot, thirteen were burned at the stake, seventeen were hanged, and two white men and two white women were also hanged.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[77]</span></a> Some scholars make a comparison between the “Salem witch hunt hysteria” and the actions of the city government and citizens of New York City during the trial and immediately preceding and including the initial investigation.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[78]<br /></span></a><br />It has been conjectured by several writers that the “Revolts” of both 1712 and 1741 were attributed to the presence of “Spanish Negroes.” ‘These African sailors were formally considered “free” in the West Indies. However, after they were captured in raids on the high seas, they were sold as “ordinary” African enslaved Africans, and no quarter existed with respect to the nationality or status of Africans and their descendants in Colonial America or the new Republic, for that matter. Skin color dictated status and position in this New World culture. These “Spanish Negroes” petitioned continuously for their freedom as subjects of the King of Spain. However, the only evidence was their word, and as an enslaved African, it alone had no value.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[79]<br /></span></a><br /></span><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">“Free” and enslaved Africans were also used in the various state militias to seek out and capture escaped Africans who resisted the institution of enslavement by becoming “maroons” and preying on the white settlers. These incidents and other acts of organized resistance<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[80]</a> demonstrated that Africans held in bondage had their own definition of emancipation, and it further illustrates the fact that New Yorkers were acutely aware of the dangers inherent in the forced bondage of human beings. Escaped Africans were such a concern that even early colonists passed ordinances that decreed that no more than one meal or one night’s lodging could be given to a stranger without notifying the Director.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[81]</a> A truce, if you will, existed among all European countries in the New World with respect to returning runaways to their “rightful” enslavers. Oscar Williams, in his book <u>African Americans and Colonial Legislation in the Middle Colonies</u>, describes this understanding between colonists succinctly:</span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0in 5pt -9pt; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">“In colonial America, European nationalistic spirit disappeared when it came to returning runaways. The necessity to return fugitives was the first American consensus involving Blacks.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[82]</a></span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Africans also chose a less documented approach to resisting enslavement and reducing the personal devastations that enslavement placed on them and their families. African descendants, many of them formerly enslaved themselves, held other enslaved Africans in New Amsterdam and New York City from the first documentation of the practice until its end after 1830.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[83]</span></a> Research chronicles the fact that African descendants bought wives, children, and other relatives to release them from the bondage of whites and to keep families together. Their acquisition of enslaved Africans was the result of various factors. Many African descendants bought relatives who were enslaved to white enslavers. Quite often, when marriages occurred between free African descendants and the enslaved, the free spouse attempted to buy the freedom of the enslaved spouse and children. In addition, marriages between the enslaved occasionally saw one spouse emancipated while the other remained in bondage. Consequently, those formerly enslaved tried to obtain the liberty of loved ones in servitude.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[84]<br /></span></a><br />Sherrill D. Wilson, </span><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">in his book, N</span><u><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">ew York City's African Slaveowners<b>:</b> A Social and Material Culture History,</span></u><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> illustrates that in these instances, family preservation was the motive of these “free” African descendants and that “there is no evidence that they used the enslaved for commercial purposes.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[85]</span></a> Carter G. Woodson terms this type of enslavement as “benevolent enslavement” when he states, “the majority of Negro owners of slaves were such from the point of philanthropy.”</span><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[86]</a></span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">“The entire pattern of African descendent slaveowners across the centuries (1600-1800) in New York may be termed “benevolent” in that clearly more than 97% of the cases involve free males purchasing relatives.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[87]</a></span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Africans and their descendants also engaged in a “nationalist” approach to emancipation. In several communities in upstate New York and northern New Jersey, Africans and their descendants established entire communities (cities). One such community in upstate New York near Mt. Storm and Stormville in the second half of the eighteenth century was Freemanville. This community, also referred to as “Guinea,” was settled entirely by Africans. It was unique in its ability to establish a distinctive African heritage, separate and apart from the surrounding “European” communities.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[88]</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><br /></span></a>Though Whites may have become uneasy over the prospect of the Black Revolution, real or imagined, few were moved to denounce enslavement publicly. It is widely contended that one of the motivations of early American laws was “a desire to justify to the civilized world the glaring incongruity of legal enslavement existing in a land which boasted that ‘all men were created equal.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[89]</span></a>However, deep-rooted white prejudices, the fear of large numbers of free Negroes, the impossibility of assimilating them into white society, and the need for a large and cheap servile labor force had combined to frustrate and defeat any plan for gradual abolition or immediate emancipation for that matter.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[90]</span></a>The truth of the matter is that for the vast majority of enslavers in New York, the enslaved were not simply servants but an economic investment. In addition, many homesteaders, particularly along the Hudson, were dependent upon enslaved labor to eke out a modest standard of living.<br /><br /><b>ENSLAVEMENT IN NEW YORK STATE</b><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">New York's huge seaport made it the focal point for trading the enslaved on the Eastern seaboard.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[91]</span></a> New York City was the center of the heaviest enslaved holding region north of the Mason-Dixon line. According to the first US Census, the number of enslaved people in New York State grew to some 21,324 by 1790 — a figure only some seven thousand below Georgia’s total enslaved population during the same period. In fact, through most of the 18<sup>th</sup> century, New York City ranked second to Charlestown in the number of enslaved human beings owned by its inhabitants.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[92]</span></a> In Richmond and Queens Counties, twenty percent of the population were enslaved. Even more strikingly, one in every three residents of Kings County was enslaved, a ratio that would not have been out of place in the South. “In the counties of Columbia, Albany, Orange, Ulster, and Dutchess, there were 12,303 Africans, both free and enslaved.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[93]</span></a>Enslavement was as strictly maintained in New York State as it was in Virginia.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[94]</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">The lifestyle of the Africans enslaved in these regions of New York before the nineteenth century can best be described as different only in degrees from that of their counterparts in the southern regions of the eastern seaboard.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[95]</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br />Additionally, in New York City, of the 3,092 African Americans listed in the 1790 census, about two-thirds were enslaved, with about one in every five households in the city owning at least one enslaved human being.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[96]</span></a> This fact would help illustrate the extent of the practice of enslavement in New York City when compared to the fact that in 1790, one out of every nine families in Boston owned an enslaved human being. The incidences of enslavement were so pervasive in New York City that enslavement was considerably more evenly distributed than wealth. The bottom fifty percent (50%) of the population owned 6.6% of the assessable wealth yet owned 12.1% of the enslaved population. This figure in 1789 was 17.6 percent, three times that of Boston and Philadelphia.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[97]</span></a> In addition, 13 percent of New York enslavers were women. <br /><br />In Upstate New York by 1771, the enslaved population of the Hudson Valley was a little over one-third that of the entire enslaved population of the colony, which then stood at 17,500 (Albany County’s African population was 3,877 of this number.) By 1790, the enslaved population of the Hudson Valley was 15,000 (Albany County’s African descendent population was 4,099 or 5.4 percent.)<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[98]<br /></span></a><br />In the rural communities surrounding New York City and in upstate, enslavement persisted more tenaciously. The refusal to part with property was by no means restricted to land; enslavement, too, died hard in New York’s hinterland. Even as late as 1810, a decade after the passage of the Gradual Abolition Act, more than one in three rural households still owned enslaved Africans.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[99]<br /></span></a><br />During this early period, the number of white immigrant workers was insufficient to majorly impact the labor market. African descendants (free and enslaved) held most skilled, semi-skilled, and manual labor employment. However, the period from 1820-1850 would produce a devastating restructuring in the status of African descendants in New York State.<br /><br /></span><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">Organized protests and petitions to the government for relief by white workers, primarily in New York City, were based on the proficiency and quantity of skilled African descendent artisans and workers both “free and enslaved.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[100]</a> The enslaver’s influence kept the Colonial Assembly from enacting the restrictive legislation on African-descent workers encouraged by the petitions of these white workers. This “lobbying” action on the part of enslavers was an effort based purely on profit motive. The “wage-free” income recouped by entrepreneurial enslavers for day(s), week(s), and yearly hires served to enhance their profit margins and considerably reduce their operating expenses and overhead. In most instances, the clothing, feeding, and housing of the weekly or longer hired enslaved Africans was the responsibility of the employer/hirer. The scope of this “hiring” system was considerable. Its financial potential was profitable to enslavers and hirers alike. It also proved a direct attack on the financial stability of white immigrant workers. The enslaved could be “hired” by employers at rates approaching one-half of what a white worker would cost, and it provided a source of income for enslavers during lags in their work schedules<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[101]</a>.</span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">“Urban slavery centered very much on the hiring of slaves. The black movement went untracked since hiring of Blacks naturally would require the mitigating of slave codes, which restricted the number of Blacks assembling. To combat this, The Common Council of New York City passed a law appointing a place for the more convenient hiring of slaves: that all Negro, Mulatto, and Indian slaves that are let out to hire within the city do take up their standing, in order to be hired, whereby all persons may know where to hire slaves as their occasion shall require, and also owners of slaves discovered when their slaves are hired.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[102]</a></span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">This “Hire” system spurred a new economy in New York. The involvement of insurers, lawyers, clerks, and newspapers, were all actively engaged in the establishment and operation of this new vendue</span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[103]</span></a></span><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">, the “Hire Market” in New York City. This market’s operation involved the participation of all these professionals through direct performance through contracts, advertisements, and risk management. Their participation assisted in elevating this fundamental need for skilled and unskilled labor to a new level of “investment management.” In 1804, the duty on sales at vendue amounted to $56,322.69 in revenue to the State of New York, almost equal to the State’s interest payments on the debt due from the Bank of New York.</span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[104]</span></a></span><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"> (At this time, it is difficult to ascertain what percentage of these collected duties were directly related to the enslaved due to the lack of specificity in the Budget documents themselves.) </span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">In the New York colonial system of enslavement, enslaved “human property” was often used by enslavers to pay debts of every kind; stood as security for the purchase of land and other commodities; was taxed and branded, like other property; and they were even given as wedding gifts and willed to assorted family members upon the death of the enslaver.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[105]<br /></a><br />Historians say that enslavement was so central to the economy in the early days of America that almost every business benefited from it. "The entire economy of this country was based on enslavement, North as well as South," said Eric Foner, a professor of history at Columbia University.</span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">"New York had a stranglehold on the cotton trade, which made up half the total value of U.S. exports in 1850. Brooks Brothers supplied a lot of clothing to plantation slaveowners. Merchants, manufacturers, everyone felt the economic ripples."</span></b><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[106]</a></span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">The status of “free” African descendants in New York State was their relegation to second-class citizenship. This status can be attributed to the fact that under enslavement, they were “trained to pursue a great variety of crafts and occupations while under the status of freedom, they were virtually abandoned and systematically pauperized.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[107]</span></a> It was also directly related to the massive influx of white immigrants into New York State during the nineteenth century. McManus speaks to the issue of white resentment towards these third and sometimes fourth-generation African Americans when he states, “As the working class grew and the wage rate fell, <i>necrophobia</i> became the anodyne of lower class [white] frustration.</span><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[108]</a></span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Free Negroes were brutalized by ruffians and excluded from skilled employment by the hostility of white workers. Indeed, free Negroes in the nineteenth century remained as much a class apart as in the days of slavery.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[109]</a></span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br />Life for the enslaved or “free” African descendants, for that matter, in the North, was not an uplifting experience. A U.S. Senator from South Carolina, Robert Young Hayne, in the Webster – Hayne debate of 1830, describes the life of a runaway to the North as someone being treated as an outcast and assigned to “the dark and narrow lanes and obscure recesses of the cities’‘<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[110]</span></a> He further states about the northern African-American population, “there does not exist on the face of the earth, a population so poor, so wretched, so vile, so loathsome, so utterly destitute of all the comforts, conveniences, and decencies of life, as the unfortunate Blacks of Philadelphia and New York and Boston.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[111]</span></a> This description, of course, is, at the most, a slanted piece of Southern propaganda; however, its content does have a historical basis. <br /><br />In New York City from 1648-1801, the “Freemanship Laws” required local residency and enabled citizens in New York to protect their occupations against ‘outsiders’‘ In New York, outsiders included the enslaved and “free” African descendants who were excluded from the privileges of citizenship. “Free” African descendants continued to be excluded from all but the most menial trades, but white applicants easily found work.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[112]<br /></span></a><br />Before the mass immigration of whites from Ireland, Germany, French Canada, and Europe, African descendants monopolized jobs like coachmen, barbers, white-washers, washerwomen, and other generally defined domestic positions. In the decades before the civil war, whites began to move into the so-called “Negro” jobs. By the Reconstruction period, there had been a wholesale displacement of Blacks.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[113]</span></a> African descendants soon became excluded from industrial jobs, and white inclusion and Black exclusion became the reality of New York State’s employment landscape.<br /><br />African descendants in the North also faced protests from white workers, a ban on the ownership of private property, land, and homes, segregation in public accommodations, segregated schools, economic discrimination, poverty, disease, and horrendous living conditions,<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[114]</span></a> as well as varying degrees of disenfranchisement. New York State, in 1800, instituted a property qualification of $250 for Black voters. At the same time, it eliminated all such requirements for whites. This law passed in 1821 by the State of New York denied Africans and their descendants the right to vote unless they owned land worth $250. “Prior to this act, a single qualification for voting (owning property valued at $100) had applied equally to men of both races.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[115]<br /></span></a><br />This action, in effect and intention, eliminated the ability of Africans and their descendants to exercise their franchise in New York State. Our curiosity as to the purposes of these legislative actions on the part of the white majority tends to become jaded after a period, especially when we discuss these outright actions of institutional racism. The fact that the State of New York effectively abolished enslavement in 1827 serves as the foundation for many such laws.<br /> <br />It is refreshing to know that not all state citizens did not toe the “party line” concerning this obvious attempt at disenfranchisement. In her article, “<i>They Called it Timbucto,</i>” Katherine Butler Jones chronicles an “ingenious plan” developed and implemented by Gerrit Smith in 1846 to circumvent this law and, at the same time, provide African descendants with a potential means of self-sufficiency and pride. Mr. Smith, a wealthy landowner and reformer, “believed that every man who desired a farm should own one,” regardless of race.<br /><br />After paying the tax debts on his land (estimated at 750,000 acres), he embarked on a plan to rid himself of what he considered excessive land holdings by giving away tracts of land to “upstanding African Americans.” It is recorded that Mr. Smith not only believed that everyone who wanted a farm should have one, but he was also of the opinion that “no person should own more than one farm” ‘</span><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[116]</a></span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">“To identify and distribute land to worthy African American men, Gerrit Smith requested help from his friend. The Reverend Henry Highland Garnet- purported grandson of a Mandingo chieftain, minister of the Liberty Street Presbyterian Church in Troy [N.Y.] …Through their efforts, in 1846, 3,000 parcels of his land were set aside for distribution in Franklin, Delaware, Oneida, Essex, Madison, Hamilton, and Ulster counties – 120,000 acres in all, a vast archipelago of land stretching from the Canadian border south to Long Island Sound. His land grants would provide many African American men with plots of land, each worth $250 – the precise amount the enactment required a Black man to own to vote.”</span></b><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[117]</a></span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">About a dozen such families settled in an area in the Adirondack Mountains in a settlement called ‘Timbucto.’ ‘The land, although rocky and not especially suited for farming, was settled by some twelve families who managed to scrape out a living “growing rye, potatoes, oats, and other crops.” <a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[118]</a><br /><br /><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">“Timbucto proved to be a difficult home for many of these families, having no prior experience in farming. But a few did well and stuck it out on the land – for it was the land that ensured them the precious, all-important right to vote.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[119]</span></a></span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br />Even with these sporadic humanitarian efforts, “By 1840, ninety-three percent (93%) of the “free” African American population of the United States was disenfranchised.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[120]</a><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></p><div style="text-align: left;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">ABOLITION IN NEW YORK<br /></span></b><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">DUTCH FREEDOM POLICIES</span></b></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br /></span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">“Therefore we, the Director and Council do release, for the term of their natural lives, the above named and their wives from Slavery, hereby setting them free and at liberty, on the same footing as other free people here in New Netherlands, where they shall be able to earn their livelihood by Agriculture, on the land shown and granted to them, on condition that they, the above named Negroes, shall be bound to pay for the freedom they receive each man for himself annually, as long as he lives, to the West India Company or its Deputy here, thirty skepels (barn baskets- 22 ½ bushels) of Maize, or Wheat, Pease or Beans. And one Fat Hog, valued at twenty guilders, which thirty skepels and the hog they, the Negroes, each for himself, promises to pay annually, beginning from the date hereof, on pain, if anyone of them shall fail to pay the yearly tribute, he shall forfeit his freedom and return into the said Company’s slavery.”</span></b><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[121]</a></span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">In 1644, the Dutch West India Company granted "conditional freedom" to enslaved Africans on condition that they make an annual fixed payment of farm produce<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[122]</a>. However, the children of these "conditionally freed" people, born and unborn, remained the property of the Company forever. The reasoning inherent in the implementation of this practice is obvious. It allowed the company to retain an effective and replenishing supply of enslaved labor. Another reason for this practice may relate to a Dutch custom of giving children their own enslaved African child once they reached the age of six or eight; usually, these enslaved children were of a similar age to their youthful enslavers.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[123]</a><br /><br />Whatever the reasoning, this practice of the Dutch of enslaving children would raise its “dark head” once again when the issue of emancipation was debated and legislated in the eventual State of New York. Most of the families received grants to lands they had been farming before becoming "free." At the time, the area was generally undesirable swampland, frequently referred to as the “Black ooze.” Today, most of the area is in Greenwich Village.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[124]</a><br /><br />During the Dutch period (1624-1664), at least twenty-four enslaved Africans were manumitted at either a “half free” or full freedom status. Almost all these manumissions involved some conditions imposed upon the freed Africans. Half freedom benefited the enslavers as much as the enslaved, for in some cases, it was a more efficient system of labor than chattel enslavement. Half freedom provided the Dutch West Indies Company with an “on-call” workforce, which would be used on fortifications and other public works whenever needed.<br /><br />On 25 February 1644, twenty men were manumitted, eleven of whom received “half freedom” status. These men were the first enslaved Africans brought to New Amsterdam in 1626. The enslaved men: Paulo Angola, Big Manuel, Little Manuel, Manuel de Gerrit de Reus, Simon Congo, Anthony Portuguese, Garcia, Peter Santomee, Jan Francisco, Little Anthony, and Jan Fort Orange served for eighteen - nineteen years as the labor force in New Amsterdam.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[125]</a> It was the opinion of the company that these men would be unable to support their wives and numerous children if they remained in the service of the company. Each man received one to twenty acres of land, and they were freed on the condition that they pay back to the Company annually “22 ½ bushels of maize, wheat, or corn and one fat hog to the company or be re-enslaved.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[126]</a> These men, therefore, became totally free when the British overtook New Netherlands. It should be noted that this manumission act and its eventual manumission of these enslaved Africans resulted from the continued petitioning and protest of these Africans and some whites. By doing so, and with the help of some New Netherlands citizens, the Company grudgingly gave in to their demands.<br /><br />Between 1635 and 1665, the Company gave approximately 150 and 200 acres of land to those recently “freed”. These grant lands ran from Hudson Street along the south and east sides to Astor Place (Sand Hill Road) in New Amsterdam.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[127]</a> Henry Lanier in Greenwich Village suggests that this generosity by acknowledged enslavers was wholly out of character. Based on West India Company annals, the Dutch had thousands of acres of land on Manhattan alone, and he surmises that this land grant practice was based on a scheme to keep all the profits recovered from raids upon other nations' ships. The standard practice of the Company was for everyone on board a ship to share in the profits of the privateers. It seems that the Company realized that it could make a substantial profit and keep all of the proceeds by offering the enslaved sailors freedom and some land considered worthless.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[128]</a> Irrespective of the motivations attributed to “conditional freedom,” this and other Dutch policies were later eliminated by the British, as summarized earlier and substituted with legalized oppression. Under English rule, additions to the city’s [New York] free Black population were very few. <br /><br /><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 5pt 0.7in 5pt 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">“Between 1664 and 1712, when a restrictive manumission law was enacted, probably not more than a dozen slaves were freed, either in wills or through instruments of manumission.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[129]</a></span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"> </span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in -9.35pt;"><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">NEW YORK STATE ABOLITION POLICIES</span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in -9.35pt; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"> </span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">D</span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">uring the Revolutionary War, enslaved Africans became a very viable “commodity” to both the British and the Colonists. Various efforts and offers were presented to ensure the services of the enslaved but, more importantly, to ensure that the enemy did not acquire their services first. In 1775, Lord Dunmore, the royal governor of Virginia, promised freedom to all enslaved men belonging to rebels who would join “His Majesty’s Troops.” Some 800 enslaved Africans were enlisted in the British forces.<br /><br />The events of the American Revolution had a greater effect on enslavement in New York than in any other state; desertion from enslavers was encouraged officially by the British and led to the absconding of a number of these enslaved Africans to the British lines. In New York City, British commander and chief Guy Carleton determined that African descendants who responded to the British proclamations before 1782 were free. Between 3,000-4,000 African descendants were under his protection and were transported to Nova Scotia. Approximately one thousand of those who escaped were shipped to Freetown, Sierra Leone, Africa, in 1793 at the expense of the British government.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[130]</a>However, there were several instances where many African descendants fell victim to British treachery and were sold into enslavement in the West Indies. Or, as was the case at Yorktown, where some 5,000 escaped Africans, who had sought the protection and promise of freedom from General Cornwallis, were forced to flee the fort into the “no man’s” land between the oncoming Colonial and French armies and the fort’s walls. All of this took place after these escaped Africans had been used to rebuild the fort’s fortifications.<br /><br />The Colonial offers for required services were as enslaved labor and not as soldiers. New York State was one of the few states that discouraged enslaved enlistments. The New York Militia Act of 1775 stipulated, “all bought servants during their servitude shall be free from being listed in any Troop or Company within this Colony.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[131]</a> The Colonial Army, on the other hand, after 1777, was faced with the difficulty of raising white volunteers and began recruiting enslaved men to meet their military needs. It became obvious, as historian Benjamin Quarles wrote, “that the best way to prevent the Negro from going over to the British was to give him sufficient inducement to fight for America.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[132]</a> In 1781, the Legislature of New York passed a law that manumitted any enslaved Africans who had served with the state militia during the Revolutionary War.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[133]</a><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br />Four years later, in 1785, both Houses of the New York Legislature passed a gradual abolition act. This legislation followed a recurring theme in northern abolition laws of the period. It allowed for the “freedom of those enslaved after a period of what amounted to “indentured servitude.” It also denied “freedmen” the right to vote, hold public office, intermarry with white persons, and testify against white defendants in court. The Council of Revision<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[134]</a>, however, rejected (vetoed) the bill after review because of the last clause, which prohibited those freed from exercising the right of franchise “in any case whatsoever.”<br /><br />The Council concluded the following: 1- Because the bill enacted the disenfranchisement of Negroes, mulattoes, and mustees, it excluded Africans of this description from all share in the Legislature and those offices in which a vote may be necessary; 2- Because it holds up a doctrine that is repugnant to the principles on which the United States justify their separation from Great Britain; 3- Because this class of disenfranchised and discontented citizens, who at some period may be both numerous and wealthy, may, under the direction of ambitious and factious leaders, become dangerous to the state and effect the ruin of the Constitution whose benefits they are not able to enjoy; 4- Because the creation of an order of citizens who are to have no legislative or representative share in the government, necessarily lays the foundation of an aristocracy of the most dangerous and malignant kind. Rendering power permanent and hereditary in the hands of those persons who deduce their origin through white ancestors, only; and, 5- Because the last clause of the bill, being general, deprives those Black, mulatto, and mustee citizens who have heretofore been entitled to a vote. The Constitution does not support the idea that the Legislature may arbitrarily dispose of the dearest rights of their constituents.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[135]</a> The legislature failed to override the veto by the Council, and abolition was delayed in New York.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[136]</a> They did, however, enact a law that banned the importation of enslaved Africans to New York.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[137]</a><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br />The year 1788 saw the enactment by New York State of “An Act concerning the Slaves allowing slaveowners to free an enslaved African if that African could become self-supporting. Provisions were made for the registration of “freed” Africans and the posting of a “security.” No records exist regarding the overall effect of this legislative action.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[138]<br /></a></span><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><br />GRADUAL ABOLITION</span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br />The most definitive action with respect to legalized Abolition occurred in 1799 when the New York State Legislature passed “An Act for the Gradual Abolition of Slavery.” This law stipulated that any child born of an enslaved woman within the state after July 4, 1799, should be “deemed and adjudged to be born free.” However, the law also stipulated that these same children shall be the servants of the legal enslaver of his or her mother until such child if a male reaches the age of twenty-eight years and if a female reaches the age of twenty-five.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[139]</a> This mandate for the “bondage of children” to their mother’s enslaver was a compromise reached between the legislature's abolitionist and enslaver factions over compensating enslavers for the loss of their “property” to abolition. Most of the enslavers influencing this debate were Dutch, who could accurately be described as “property rights advocates.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[140]</a> In his Journal of a Tour of the United States of America 1794-1795, William Strickland observed that in the 1790s, “many of the old Dutch farmers…. have 20-30 slaves to their care and management everything is left.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[141]</a><br /><br />Although these children were not technically or legally enslaved, they were given to their mother's enslaver as “indentured servants” for a period of 25 or 28 years. This form of “indentured servitude” is considerably different from the European system, which required between 4 and 7 years of service, depending on the circumstance under which the person was bound. In addition, the European system made some provisions for the servant to purchase his or her freedom.<br /><br />Under the Law of 1799, the enslaver of the mother of the enslaved child(ren) was required to register each child with the town clerk under the penalty of a fine. In addition, should the enslaver of the mother choose to abandon his/her rights to the child’s service, he /she was required to notify the town clerk. The town clerk would declare the child a pauper, thus allowing the Overseer of the Poor in that town to bind out the child to any interested parties. The Overseer was compensated $3.50 per month per child for maintenance by the Comptroller and Treasurer of New York State until the child was contracted/bonded out to another “enslaver.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[142]</a> Once bound to an enslaver by the town official, the enslaver was entitled to receive the state-allocated maintenance payment. This unusual form of subsidy by the State of New York for the express purpose of the “bondage of children” is, at the very least, documented complicity on the part of the state in the exploitation and subjugation of African people. In 1801, the total cost of this “maintenance fee” was $1,359; however, by 1804, this “maintenance fee” totaled more than $20,000 per year in expenditures to the State of New York. In 1805, this expenditure totaled $19,261.22, a substantial sum when we compare it to the total of $20,700 for the salaries of the Governor, Chancellor, Judges of the Supreme Court, and the Attorney General.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[143]</a><br /><br />As is usually the case when the government attempts to protect the interests of certain entrepreneurial endeavors, this maintenance system is corrupted. In many instances, the original enslavers, after “abandoning” their rights to these children, were the recipients of the services (bondage) of the children as well as the compensation from the state for their maintenance. Enslavers were now registered and subsidized by the State of New York. This example of public policy is similar to other established governmental policies over the years, which reward or otherwise subsidize entrepreneurial enterprises in an attempt to establish an unfair advantage or further and/or encourage a misguided “public good,” e.g., farmers who are subsidized for not growing certain crops.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">“Because the Overseer of the Poor would be inclined to bind out the child to the slaveowners of the child’s mother, slaveowners could expect to derive a lucrative income from abandonments,” wrote historian Arthur Zilversmit. “This abandonment clause was, therefore, a disguised scheme for compensated abolition, and it undoubtedly served to make gradual abolition more acceptable to slaveowners conscious of their property rights.”</span></b><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[144]</a></span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">This system proved to be “a far cry from freedom.” Further, this law also contained a clause that allowed enslavers to manumit their enslaved Africans after the passage of this law. It would be interesting to research just how many of the more than 21,000 enslaved Africans who lived in New York during this period were freed. Harry P. Yoshpe, in the Journal of Negro History, documents the manumission of only twenty-three (23) enslaved Africans during the period 1796-1800 in the County of New York and seventy-six (76) total manumitted in the state between 1783 and 1800.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[145]</a>It is more likely that the enslavers saw this provision as an opportunity to relieve themselves of the expenses inherent in the upkeep of older and sickly enslaved Africans.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[146]</a><br /><br />To help alleviate the financial burden placed on both the state and enslavers, the Legislature passed an Act in 1804 which provided that the enslaver entitled to the services of these African descendent children could abandon his/her responsibility for those children if certified by the Overseer of the Poor that the child or young adult could support her/himself. The law stipulated that this abandonment process could occur once the young adult reached the “age of abandonment, “males, the age of twenty-one, and females, the age of eighteen years.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[147]</a><br /><br />The reality is that New York State was the largest “slave-owning” state north of the Mason-Dixon line during the two centuries that it practiced this inhumane system of enslavement and the bondage of children. The profits and labor of this system served to make New York State the “Empire State” and the financial capital of the world that we know today. New York enslavers were not allowed to sell their enslaved to out-of-state buyers, only to New York State residents. However, these buyers found ways to circumvent these restrictions by becoming temporary citizens of New York. To keep the cornerstone of its economy from being usurped by other states and to counter the enslaver’s attempts to take their profit-making “human property” elsewhere (the South), the Legislature passed in 1807, “An Act to amend the Act, entitled “An Act concerning Slaves and Servants.” The motivating factor behind this law was the state’s unwillingness to lose its free labor force and significant profits to the booming plantation economy of the South. This law’s provisions severely restricted the travel of enslavers with their enslaved outside of the state. Licenses were required to travel, and the law prohibited enslavers from removing their enslaved permanently from the state.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[148]</a><br /><br />In another attempt to keep its “free” labor force intact, legislators made a guised attempt to protect New York's “free” African descendent residents from being kidnapped a “second time” and sold to the South with the passage in 1808 of the "Act to Prevent the Kidnaping of Free People of Colour." The penalty for the first kidnapping offense was a fine and/or imprisonment for not more than fourteen years. A second offense could result in hard labor or solitude in prison for their natural life. We will learn later in this work that New York’s avaricious enslavers also found a way to circumvent this law.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[149]</a><br /><br />The War of 1812 presented another abolition scheme on the part of the state. Much like during the Revolutionary War, this abolition effort was extended to African descendants due to the catastrophic progress of the war. The state chose to recruit desperately needed troops by re-enacting the old Revolutionary War Act, calling for raising African Regiments. This Law: “An Act to authorize the raising of two Regiments of Color,” was passed by the Legislature in 1814.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[150]</a>Again, those enslaved had to receive the permission of their enslavers, and the enslavers would receive a bounty. After serving three years, these enslaved Africans were declared “free.”<br /><br /><br /><b>ANTI-ENSLAVEMENT MOVEMENT</b><br /><br />As New York’s abolition movement progressed, not all New Yorkers supported the emancipation of the population of African descent in New York. In 1816, opponents of immediate emancipation established the American Colonization Society (ACS) in Washington, DC. They sought a type of compromise of the enslavement question and a remedy to what they believed was a threat from the growing free Black population in cities such as New York. Their solution was to export/deport African descendants to Liberia in West Africa. Some New Yorkers supported the ACS plan, believing the relocation, especially with the prospect of bringing Christianity to Africa, was a reasonable alternative to total emancipation.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[151]</a><br /><br />Ironically, among its members was former New York State Governor John Jay, who, in 1785, became the first president of the New York Manumission Society and who, as Governor, signed into law “The Gradual Abolition of Slavery Act” of 1799. In the late 1700s, he personally owned five enslaved Africans.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[152]</a> Another member was Henry Clay, a southern congressman, and sympathizer of the plight of free Blacks, who believed that because of "unconquerable prejudice resulting from their color, they never could amalgamate with the free whites of this country."<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[153]</a> Other prominent Americans who were members of this Society included former presidents James Monroe, James Madison, Andrew Jackson<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[154]</a>, Abraham Lincoln, US Supreme Court Justice Bushrod Washington, Francis Scott Key, and Daniel Webster, to name a few.<br /><br />In 1819, the United States Congress authorized President Monroe to provide $100,000 to the ACS effort to purchase a suitable location in Africa for the colonization of America's free Blacks.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[155]</a> During the 1850s, the society also received several thousands of dollars from the New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Missouri, Maryland, and Virginia legislatures.)<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[156]</a> Of the 7,836 Africans and African descendants sent to Africa by the American Colonization Society from 1817 to 1852, two hundred and four had purchased their freedom before departure.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[157]</a><br /><br />The colonization endeavor evoked strong Black protest, including dissent from John B. Russwurm, co-editor of New York City's Freedom's Journal (1827-29), the first Black newspaper published in the United States. William Wells Brown, a formerly enslaved man, at one of their meetings, branded “the United States as a willful liar, a shameless hypocrite, and the deadliest enemy of the human race.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[158]</a> White abolitionists also voiced criticism of the ACS. James Boardman in America and the Americans are critical of the ACS for being used to remove only those few enslaved that the enslavers found “convenient to emancipate” while the majority remained in bondage.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[159]</a><br /><br />Simultaneously, during this period of impending abolition (1817-1827), more nefarious schemes were taking place led by New York State enslavers. They wanted to recover at least potential financial losses that would be imminent with the imposition of abolition and emancipation. New York enslavers began to sell their enslaved to the markets in the South<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[160]</a>, where the demand was high, and the fear of abolition was minimal. The South had developed, in its sugar and cotton plantations, the most innovative economic unit of its time in terms of labor management and organization. They had anticipated the assembly line and the factory system in relationship to supervision and division of tasks. Their requirements for a larger enslaved workforce were considerable and profitable to both enslavers and sellers of “human property” alike.<br /><br />The actual documentation of this practice of selling the enslaved to the South is inconclusive. However, scholars, including Edgar J. McManus, concur with its existence as well as the kidnapping and selling of “free Blacks” to southern states. In A History of Negro Slavery in New York, McManus, through the analysis of census data, documents the sharp decline in the growth rate of New York’s Black population after 1800. McManus further states,<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">“The conclusion is inescapable that the exodus was largely the work of kidnappers and illegal traders who dealt in human misery.”</span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Sojourner Truth recounts her experience with this practice when one of her five children is sold off by the John I. Dumont family of Ulster Park. She uses this act of betrayal as grounds to flee the Dumonts in 1827.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[161]</a><br /><br />Further evidence of selling the enslaved before they were freed is “For Sale” advertisements in several newspapers, including the Suffolk Gazette, Long Island, NY, on 13 May 1805. In this ad, a 25-year-old “Negro” woman is offered for sale with or without her four-year-old daughter.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[162]</a><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">ROLE OF AFRICAN DESCENDANTS</span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br /></span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> “<b>A new vision is needed wherein Africans and African descendants may be understood not solely as victims in the American economic and social systems of slavery, but also as survivors utilizing a number of strategies for the purpose of gaining controlling interests of their lives and actions.”</b></span><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[163]</a></span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0in; text-align: left;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">African Americans played an extremely active role in the abolition of enslavement in New York Stare. In many instances, this role was played under the threat of death or re-enslavement in the South. African descendants publicly supported immediate abolition. Their efforts were principally undertaken through their churches but also in voluntary associations such as literary societies and anti-enslavement organizations. Among the organizations and societies against enslavement in New York (just to name a few) were: The New York Manumission Society (est.1785), The New York Anti-Slavery Society with affiliates in numerous New York cities and towns, The Negro Anti-Slavery Society of Rochester, The Roger Williams Baptist Anti-Slavery Society in New York City, as well as the formation of “Negro” juvenile anti-enslavement societies in cities like Troy, NY. The African descendent anti-enslavement movement in New York also established sixteen “colored library societies.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[164]</a><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0in; text-align: justify;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">It should be noted that all-African American, all-white, and integrated memberships constituted anti-enslavement organizations and societies. However, there were several instances of anti-enslavement societies barring African descendant membership or segregating their meetings. Likewise, in some cases, social interaction between African descendants and whites was discouraged or banned.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[165]</a><br /><br />The ultimate result was a split in the anti-enslavement/abolitionist movement. This split included re-establishing all-African descendant organizations for reasons best articulated by Martin R. Delany, an outspoken Pan-African Nationalist. He asserted that the anti-enslavement societies always,<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">“…presumed to <i>think </i>for, dictate to, and <i>know</i> better<i> </i>what suited colored people than they know for themselves.”</span></b><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[166]</a></span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">African American churches played a major role in the anti-enslavement movement in New York and nationally. For me, the most significant and interesting aspect of this resistance to enslavement was the role played by New York and other northern African American newspapers. Their involvement was both enormous and dangerous. Their participation in this cause extended well beyond the abolition of enslavement in New York State. Their efforts continued until the last vestiges of this inhumane system were stricken from the political and social landscape of America. One African descendant newspaperman was Rev. Jeremiah R. B. Smith<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[167]</a>, my Great-Great-Great Grandfather. Jeremiah Smith was a well-published newspaper reporter and the founder, editor, and principal writer of a New York State newspaper called <i>The Echo</i>, a newspaper dedicated to the advancement of people of African descent in New York State.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br />It has been the opinion of many historians, including Benjamin Quarles, that the abolitionist movement of the Federalist era must be viewed as a failure. The reality is that “the Northern states had all but abandoned enslavement, it is true, but the chief reason had been the availability of a free labor supply which made bonded labor unprofitable. The early abolitionists created no general sentiment against enslavement”[168]. Its participants were the wealthy (socialite) land owners and a political minority, not most of the lower and middle-class Americans in the North. The Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society itself concurred. While addressing the National Anti-Slavery Society, it admitted, “Those actively engaged in the cause of the oppressed Africans are very small.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[169]</a><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br />Ironically, one of the fateful compromises made at the United States Constitutional Convention of 1787 played a significant role in the issue of enslavement, its abolition, and the Civil War. The compromise was directly responsible for the forthright rejection of the idea of "one man, one vote," contrary to the myth of American democracy, at the Convention that eventually produced the document ratified by nine of the thirteen colonies in 1788, one of the last issues to be resolved was how to elect a president, according to Roger A. Bruns's "Introduction" to A More Perfect Union: The Creation of the United States Constitution, published for the National Archives Trust Fund Board.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br />While southerners did not want enslaved people of African descent to vote, the southern delegates wanted to count the enslaved with their population, increasing the region's political clout and voice in choosing the presidency due to increased numbers in the Electoral College. The northern states objected to this because they would have been outnumbered. Hence the Great Compromise, the notorious "three-fifths of a man" clause that permitted enslavement to continue and struck an unhappy medium between “slave” and “non-slave” states by permitting the enslaved and people of color to be counted as three-fifths of a white person when setting the number of members of the House of Representatives due each state.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br />The compromise was instrumental in giving the southern states an advantage in their representation in Congress. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">“By 1850, a growing number of northerners were convinced that slavery posed an intolerable threat to free labor and civil liberties. Many believed that an aggressive Slave Power had seized control of the federal government, incited revolution in Texas and war with Mexico, and was engaged in a systematic plan to extend slavery into the western territories.”</span></b><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[170]</a></span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br /><b>FINAL ABOLITION</b><br /><br />Regarding the abolition of enslavement in New York, the State Legislature passed in 1817 “An Act relative to slaves and servants.” This law is New York State’s emancipation law, and it became effective on 4 July 1827. It extended enslaved emancipation to those born before July 4, 1799, who were not covered under the Gradual Abolition Law in 1799. The Law stipulated that these enslaved Africans would become “free” as of July 4, 1827. (It should be noted that the effective date of this law in 1827, exactly 28 years after the Law of 1799, was no coincidence. This effective date would allow enslavers to receive a full 28 years of service from male enslaved children born in 1799.) This law also allowed for the enslaved to continue as such unless state law mandated the enslaved be freed. Curiously, it also legitimized the fact that baptizing the enslaved would not constitute manumission.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[171]</a><br /><br />This “baptism clause” represents an interesting paradox within the systematic structure of enslavement in New York State. Enslavers fully understood that the Church of England and the Duke’s Law of March 1674<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[172]</a> had promulgated rules banning the enslavement of Christians. They were also acutely aware of the circumstances surrounding English Law equating civil status with religion.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[173]</a> These actions and directives meant that enslavers in America were faced with the dilemma of upholding their churches’ religious principles while at the same time ensuring the continuation of enslavement and their economic survival. This writer contends that enslavers “lobbied” for the inclusion of this provision in this and all other laws relative to the emancipation/abolition of enslavement to circumvent any religious attempts to abolish enslavement on purely moral grounds. Enslavers, with full knowledge of their deceit, chose instead the option of providing religious instruction to their enslaved and the elimination of baptisms.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[174]</a><br /><br />It has been documented that very few, if any, converted Africans were participants or leaders in the Insurrections of 1712 and 1741 in New York City. New York City officials undertook extensive investigations to attempt to prove a connection between conversion/baptism and organized resistance on the part of the newly ‘Christianized’ enslaved.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[175]</a> These investigations failed to prove these allegations. Of the enslaved persons involved in the 1741 “Great Negro Plot,” only one was confirmed as a converted Christian.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[176]</a> Ironically, in the later 19th century, enslavers, particularly in the South, adopted the view that Christianity would make those enslaved more submissive, orderly, and conscientious.<br /><br />Those enslaved in the North were sophisticated enough to realize the contradiction in their enslaver’s approach to religious instruction. Unlike their counterparts in the South, northern African descendants were not as willing to accept Christianity at face value. They did not respond as favorably to the conversion to Christianity as those in the South because of their discontent with the secular facets of Christianity. They realized that conversion provided little chance for them to improve their condition.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[177]</a><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">“Blacks resisted the church and its doctrine, especially those Blacks born in Africa. Black rejection of the Christian doctrine centered around the fact that Christianity only increased the mental burden of the slaves. In conclusion, church records show that Blacks became disenchanted with Christianity when conversion did not produce automatic freedom.”</span></b><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[178]</a></span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">However, other Christian factions in New York did allow baptisms, e.g., Quakers. Thus, this “baptism provision” in the 1817 Law was intended to address these “uncontrollable” religious freedom practices that might prove detrimental to their economic and social self-interests.<br /><br />It should also be noted that the passage of this law abolishing enslavement was accompanied by the emergence of a virulent form of racial prejudice and violence. African descendants in New York demonstrated a remarkable sense of political acumen by choosing not to celebrate “their emancipation” on the 4th of July in conjunction with Independence Day after the first few years due to their conflict with “the disparity between rhetoric and the reality, between their country’s high professions of liberty and equality and the existence of slavery and the high wall of color.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[179]</a> Instead, they chose to later celebrate on the 5th of July or August 1st, the anniversary of the unconditional freedom of those enslaved in the British West Indies as their “Emancipation Day.”<br /><br /></span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">CONCLUSION</span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;"><br /></span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">“Whether slavery is characterized as “mild” … or “harsh” … the modern institution rests on economic and political assumptions that deny not merely the equality but indeed the humanity of the slave.”</span></b><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[180]</a></span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">The Historical Background</span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br /><br />The preceding documentation and testimony chronicle the involvement of state and local government in the organization, administration, and fiscal support of chattel enslavement and the forced bondage of children of African descent, and the implementation of a system of institutional racial discrimination in New York State. Additionally, it clearly and unequivocally illustrates to any discerning reader that enslavement and its institutionalized hybrid, gradual abolition, were not haphazard occurrences, regardless of where they were practiced in the United States, whether North or South. Enslavement was a calculated, government-initiated, and/or government-supported action on the part of Western “civilized” nations designed to gain a worldwide economic advantage. At the same time, this work exposes both Europe and America’s efforts to consciously institute a racial system of inferiority and subjugation that would result in the goal of implementing a “New World Order.” This paradigm was accomplished by establishing a monopoly on trade and the execution of the colonization of Africa and the New World. The result of these policies and actions was the inevitable destruction of and the forced subjugation of the ancient and extraordinary culture and resource-rich civilizations in Africa and the New World.<br /><br />Corporate development, economic superiority, and world dominance were the byproducts of the institutions of the “slave trade” and enslavement. However, the birth of the United States and the elevation of New York City and New York State to their status as the centerpiece of the New World economy were undeniably the results of calculated and ruthlessly evil acts and crimes perpetrated against people of African descent.<br /><br />Enslavement in New York State could not have existed for as long as it did, nor could it have sustained or benefited the state as much as it did without the full and complete involvement and active participation of its public and private governing bodies. The preceding documentation and testimony have proven these governmental entities' culpability beyond any reasonable doubt.<br /><br />Much has been discussed and written, for that matter, of the horror and depravity of enslavement in the southern United States, and yet, as we now know, New York State implemented and benefited immeasurably from the exact same system of institutional enslavement and racial discrimination. “Slave codes,” whippings, murders, the breakup and separation of families, disenfranchisement, and brutality were all aspects of New York State enslavement and its hybrid bondage during gradual abolition. Likewise, the fact that financial support was appropriated by local, state, and federal governments to perpetuate the bondage of men, women, and children is inescapable.<br /><br />In addition, it has been established that public policy in New York State was designed and manipulated in a conscious effort to benefit the enslaver and aristocratic classes. New York State enslavers were granted reimbursement by the state for their “human property” losses from the executions of rebellious and runaways. Additionally, they were allocated taxpayer-generated dollars for the implementation and subsistence of a legalized program of bondage called gradual abolition that legally enslaved Africans and their descendants and provided maintenance for the support of African descendant children (compensated emancipation).<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[181]</a><br /><br /><b>The Results of Gradual Abolition </b><br /><br />During this period of the forced bondage of African descendant children, the New York State Legislature affirmed its financial responsibility for the maintenance of thousands of abandoned enslaved children beginning in 1799 and continuing through 1827, when it passed its final abolition law.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[182]</a> The real cost of gradual abolition, however, was the effect that it had on the African descendant babies, children, mothers, and families. Under the guise of protecting “property rights,” a devastatingly destructive and unprecedented plan of “de jure” enslavement was inflicted on innocent African descendant children and families. The fact remains that African descendant children were summarily ripped from the arms of their mothers without regard to human rights or adherence to any standards of human decency and placed in a system of state-sponsored and state-funded human bondage.<br /><br />Under this Act, families were forced to give up their children within a year of birth and legally barred from developing any type of family bond. These “abandoned” children, abandoned not by their mother’s choice but through the power of the state, were sentenced by this Act to provide free labor to designated enslavers. They were also forced to live in separate households, often far removed from the care and nurturing of their family members. As late as 1820, almost half of the African descendant children in the state under the age of fourteen lived in these white households. After the advent of “Final Abolition” in 1827, which “freed” their parents and other relatives, these children remained in human bondage until their legally established sentence of bondage was completed.<br /><br />In practice, New York State had created its own legal hell for African descendants during the 1800s. Not quite enslavement, but certainly not the “freedom” promised in the Gradual Abolition Act, which stated in 1799 that any child born of an enslaved mother within the state after July 4, 1799, should be “deemed and adjudged to be born free.” The cost of these legalized actions of institutional enslavement upon the future development and prosperity of these children and the African descendant community, in general, was the devastation and destruction of the African descendant family. The broader cost is still being calculated to this very day.<br /><br />Through the legislative authority of the Gradual Abolition Act, the State of New York never allowed these children who were “freed” by statute to experience any semblance of a secure and protected childhood. They were placed in the custody of local Overseers of the Poor at the age of one year and were subsequently bonded out by the age of four to white enslavers as “free labor” until they reached adulthood.<br /><br />It is understandable how these children would suffer from both despair and an insidiously high mortality rate. The fact that their “unexpired” sentence could be sold from one enslaver to another at any time had also contributed to a constant state of fear and vulnerability. Most assuredly, the greatest harm caused to the African descendant family by this Act was that it was self-perpetuating. Once taken from their families and forced to provide free labor for others until adulthood, these children, now adults, were faced with the same difficulties of establishing a stable family as their enslaved parents had experienced in New York State. Still under the forced obligation of bondage, if they chose to marry, they would be forced to live in separate residences if their partner was “free.” Unable to control their own destiny, they would always have to face the possibility that they could be resold by their enslavers away from their marriage and children. These legally designated enslavers had complete control over every aspect of their lives, personal and otherwise, and complete control of their freedom of movement from one day to the next.<br /><br />Employment opportunities that presented themselves to the “free” partner meant the breakup of the marriage or prolonged separation. Children of these unions would also be forced to experience a life of bondage, constantly under the threat of the hiring out of their bonded parent. This vicious cycle continued, but this time, it was created and financed by the State of New York.<br /><br />The history of New York State is replete with examples of artificially created circumstances that either led to or were designed to ensure the constant instability of African descendants and their families. These instances of private or public subjugation inspired conditions not of these families' choosing but conditions imposed on them by private greed and public protectionism. Whether imposed by the institution of enslavement or the legal mandates of gradual abolition, the survival of the African and African descendant family was a consequence of factors outside of their control. This statement can be applied to the period when Africans and African descendants “resided” in New York beginning in 1625 with the introduction of the first enslaved Africans to New Amsterdam.<br /><br />Consider the fact that it was not until the mid-1870s in New York State (when bonded women born shortly before July 4, 1827, ended their childrearing years) that an entire generation of African descendants began to be born, none of whose parents had ever been the victims of enslavement or the mandates of gradual abolition’s legalized bondage in their youth.<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[183]</a><br /><br />Poverty and illiteracy, despair and hopelessness, disease and deprivation, high infant and adult mortality, dysfunctional and displaced families, this is the baggage that African descendant families were forced to carry into the twentieth century. This cruel and unusual form of government-subsidized bondage provided for in the Gradual Abolition Act of 1799 was designed for the express purpose of the “bondage of children.” At the very least, its enactment and the continued existence of the institution of chattel enslavement in New York State provide testament to and further demonstrates the complicity on the part of the State of New York in the exploitation and subjugation of men, women, and children of African descent.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br /><b>New York’s Continuing Acts Exposing Its Crimes Against Humanity</b><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br />Although New York had given men of African descent the right to vote in 1827, it retained property requirements. It included new restrictions on the right to vote for those accused of committing crimes to maintain a continuous system of disenfranchisement. Following the Civil War, conditions for Black Americans in New York remained poor. Segregation became particularly common in both education and housing. The New York Court of Appeals upheld the segregation of schools in Kings County. Research has shown that up to the present day, New York still is the most segregated state for Black students. Discrimination in housing has also been a persistent and constant issue in New York since the Civil War. In addition to the housing inequality that came with wealth inequality, landlords have engaged in discriminatory housing practices.<br /><br />This pattern of geographic isolation would continue to impact Americans of African descent in New York continuously throughout the decades, including through the state-sanctioned discriminatory "redlining" practices in the 1930s and in the segregationist urban planning implemented by officials like Robert Moses in later decades. Importantly, the Federal Housing Administration (FHA), an institution that refused to insure mortgages in or near African American neighborhoods, subsidized builders who were creating subdivisions and developments in the suburbs, with the proviso that none of the homes be sold to African Americans.<br /><br />The consequences of enslavement in New York State are not an echo of the past but can still be observed in present-day daily life. Systemic and institutional racism has cemented a legacy of generational poverty, and we still see today instances of voter suppression, housing discrimination, biased policing, food apartheid, and disproportionate rates of incarceration. <br /><br />The use of the “Stop and Frisk" tactic by the New York City Police Department has had disparate impacts: at the policy's peak in 2011, an estimated 685,724 people were stopped, with fifty-three percent of those being Black, even though only twenty-six percent of New York City's population was Black.<br /><br />Enslavement has built and shaped New York State's status as an economic and cultural hub of the world. The contributions of enslaved Africans have provided the resources upon which trade and commerce in New York were built. Some of our most prestigious institutions and infrastructure were built with these contributions.<br /><br />However, New York State also has the largest income disparity in the country, and that large disparity is, in large part, the legacy of our system of enslavement.<br /><br /><b>The Remedy Available to African Descendants</b><br /><br />We all should learn through the study of history, one of life’s truer lessons, that ignoring the facts does not change the facts! This work’s purpose has been to demonstrate New York State’s complicity in and direct responsibility for the extended duration of enslavement through the legalized bondage of gradual abolition and its continued practices and policies of institutional racial discrimination. In addition, the State of New York has been found both legally and morally culpable for the subjugation, bondage, and enslavement of Africans and African descendants by means of both public policy and financial (taxpayer) support.<br /><br />Therefore, by virtue of its callous and inhumane policies and laws, New York State is thereby charged with committing “crimes against humanity” during its history on this continent. This determination is based on the premise that since enslavement and the legalized bondage of children have been labeled and repudiated by numerous worldwide sanctioning bodies, including the Nuremberg Tribunal and the World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia, and Related Intolerance (WCAR) as “crimes against humanity.”<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">The Charter of the Nuremberg Tribunal defines “crimes against humanity” as:</span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">“…murder, extermination, slavery, deportation, and other inhumane acts committed against any civilian population…. whether or not in violation of the domestic law of the country where perpetrated.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[184]</a></span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"> </span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">The World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance (WCAR), having met in Durban, South Africa, from 31 August to 8 September 2001, declared that:<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.75in 0.0001pt 40.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -4.3pt;"><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">“We acknowledge that slavery and the slave trade, including the transatlantic slave trade, were appalling tragedies in the history of humanity not only because of their abhorrent barbarism but also in terms of their magnitude, organized nature, and especially their negation of the essence of the victims, and further acknowledge that slavery and the slave trade are a crime against humanity and should always have been so, especially the transatlantic slave trade and are among the major sources and manifestations of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia, and related intolerance and that Africans and people of African descent, Asians and people of Asian descent and indigenous peoples were victims of these acts and continue to be victims of their consequences.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[185]</a></span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.75in 0.0001pt 40.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -4.3pt;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">These two world-sanctioned assemblies, even though occurring over a half-century apart, arrived at the same conclusions - that “enslavement” and “bondage” are internationally recognized as “crimes against humanity. In this context, the atrocities of gradual abolition perpetuated by the State of New York would constitute a profound “crime against humanity.”<br /><br />The enactment of the policies of gradual abolition by the State of New York, as documented throughout this work, would also support litigation for recovery against New York State for these “crimes against humanity.” This “recovery” would assume the form of restitution and/or reparations” as outlined in the WCAR Report. The WCAR urges as a remedy for past “crimes against humanity” that states be required to:<br /><br /><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">“Reinforce protection against racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia, and related intolerance by ensuring that all persons have access to effective and adequate remedies and enjoy the right to seek from competent national tribunals and other national institutions just and adequate reparation and satisfaction for any damage as a result of such discrimination.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;">[186]</a></span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br />Findings</span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br /><br />These revelations are an aspect of New York State history that should shock and horrify any civilized citizenry. At the very least, it should provoke a new awareness and understanding of the efforts now being undertaken by Africans and people of African descent to advocate for reparations for these “crimes against humanity” perpetrated by the United States, in general, and the State of New York, in particular. When a government participates in “crimes against humanity” and benefits from them, then it is obliged to make the victims whole. This is now a recognized principle of international law, the Law of State Responsibility, under which a state may be liable for certain harmful acts.<br /><br />The issues elaborated on and detailed in this work would justifiably set the groundwork for a “Case for Reparations against the State of New York.” This effort would be in keeping with the WCAR Report that stipulates:<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">“We acknowledge and profoundly regret the untold suffering and evils inflicted on millions of men, women, and children as a result of slavery, the slave trade, the transatlantic slave trade, apartheid, genocide, and past tragedies. We further note that some States have taken the initiative to apologize and have paid reparation, where appropriate, for grave and massive violations committed.”<a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[187]</span></a></span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br /></span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><br /></span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">About the author: </span></b>L. LLOYD STEWART IS A NINTH-GENERATION NATIVE OF NEW YORK STATE. HE IS THE FATHER OF SIX CHILDREN, TWENTY-ONE GRANDCHILDREN, AND FOUR GREAT-GRANDCHILDREN.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;">HE HAS WRITTEN TWO BOOKS AND NUMEROUS ARTICLES, EDITORIALS, AND PAPERS ON AFRICAN-AMERICAN HISTORY IN NEW YORK STATE. HE RECEIVED A PROCLAMATION FROM THE NEW YORK STATE ASSEMBLY RECOGNIZING HIS PIONEERING WORK AS A “HISTORIAN," AND HE ALSO SERVES ON THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES OF THE ALBANY COUNTY HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></p><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: center;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in 0.7in 0in 0.5in; text-align: center;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Endnotes:</span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" /></span></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[1]</span></a> H. Arthur Bankoff, Christopher Ricciardi, and Alyssa Loorya, “<i>Remembering Africa Under the Eaves</i>,” Archaeology Magazine, vol. 54 no. 3, May/June 2001; Theola S. Labbe, “<i>Enslaveds’ graves thought to be on farm”, </i>Times Union Newspaper, 4 Sept. 2001, pg. B1 <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[2]</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[3]</span></a> Oscar Williams, <i>African Americans and Colonial Legislation in the Middle Colonies, </i>1998, Garland Publishing, pg. 3<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[4]</span></a> IBID<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[5]</span></a> New Netherland was a Dutch colony in North America along the Hudson and lower Delaware rivers. The first settlement was made at Fort Orange (now Albany, NY) in 1624, although the colony centered on New Amsterdam at the tip of Manhattan Island after 1625-1626. New Netherlands was annexed by the English and renamed New York in 1664.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[6]</span></a> Williams, pg.4<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[7]</span></a> See: Hugh Thomas, <i>The Slave Trade</i>, 1997, Touchstone; Oliver A. Rink<i>, Holland on the Hudson: An Economic and Social History of Dutch New York</i>, 1986, Cornell; Dennis J. Maika,<i> Commerce and Community: Manhattan Merchants in the Seventeenth Century,</i> 1995, NYU; John Franklin Jameson, <i>Narratives of New Netherland</i>, 1609-1664, 1909, Scribner<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[8]</span></a> IBID<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[9]</span></a> E. B. O’Callaghan, ed., <i>Voyage of the Enslavers St. John and Arms of Amsterdam</i>, 1867, J. Munsell, pg. xiii; also see Oscar Williams, <i>African Americans and Colonial Legislation in the Middle Colonies, </i>see “An Act of the Director and Council of New Netherlands” passed 25 February 1644.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[10]</span></a> E.B. O’Callaghan, <i>Colonial Records of New York</i>, Vol.I, pg.99<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[11]</span></a> IBID, pg. 154, 364<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[12]</span></a> Henry Wysham Lanier, Greenwich Village: Today and Yesterday, Harper and Brothers, 1949, pg. 79<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[13]</span></a> IBID<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[14]</span></a> E. B. O’Callaghan, pg. 101-102<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[15]</span></a> Graham Russell Hodges, <i>Slavery, Freedom & Culture</i>, 1998, M. E. Sharpe, Inc., pg. 32<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[16]</span></a>Curtis P. Nettels, <i>The Roots of American Civilization,</i> 1963, Appleton-Century-Crofts, pg. 200-201; also see Oliver A. Rink; Dennis J. Maika; John Franklin Jameson<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[17]</span></a> Edgar J. McManus, <i>A History of Negro Slavery in New York, </i>1966, Syracuse University Press, pg. 4<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[18]</span></a> See Williams, <i>African Americans and Colonial Legislation in the Middle Colonies, </i>pg. 14<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[19]</span></a> Lanier, pg. 80<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[20]</span></a><i> African Burial Grounds</i>, History Statement, General Services Administration, gsa.gov, hereafter referred to as: <i>African Burial Grounds</i>; McManus, pg. 6, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[21]</span></a> See: Oliver A. Rink<i>, Holland on the Hudson: An Economic and Social History of Dutch New York</i>, 1986, Cornell; Dennis J. Maika,<i>Commerce and Community: Manhattan Merchants in the Seventeenth Century,</i> 1995, NYU; John Franklin Jameson, <i>Narratives of New Netherland</i>, 1609-1664, 1909, Scribner<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[22]</span></a> IBID <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[23]</span></a> Evanrt Greene and Virginia Harrington, American Population before the Federal Census of 1790, 1932, Columbia University Press, pg. 95, 100-101<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[24]</span></a> E. Wilder Spaulding, <i>New York in the Critical Period, </i>1932, New York, pg. 45; also see McManus, Lanier<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[25]</span></a> McManus, pg. xii; Ulrich B. Phillips, <i>American Negro Slavery, New York</i>, 1918, pgs. 98-114<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[26]</span></a> McManus, pg. xi – xii; Arthur Zilversmit, <i>The First Emancipation: The Abolition of Slavery in the North, </i>1967, The University of Chicago Press, pg. 34<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[27]</span></a> McManus, pg. 197-200<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[28]</span></a> Oliver A. Rink, <i>Holland on the Hudson</i>, pg. 7, 212-213; Lanier, pg. 79<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[29]</span></a> Joyce D. Goodfriend, <i>Before the Melting Pot, </i>1992, Princeton University Press, pg. 8<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[30]</span></a> Maritime History of New York, Federal Writer’s Project: Philadelphia, 1937, Doubleday, Doran & Co.pg.27 <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[31]</span></a> Joyce D. Goodfriend, pg. 9<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[32]</span></a> IBID<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[33]</span></a> See C. H. Wilson, <i>Profit and Power</i>, 1957; P. Geyl, <i>Orange and Stuart</i>, <i>1641-1672</i>, 1970</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[34]</span></a> McManus, pg. 11-19<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[35]</span></a> Chapter 160 of the Laws of 1706 of the Colony of New York stated that, “be it declar’d and Enacted by the Governor, Council & Assembly and by the Authority of the same, That all and every Negro, Indian Mulatto and Mestee Bastard Child & Children who is, are and shall be born of any Negro, Indian, Mulatto or Mestee, shall follow ye State and Condition of the Mother & be esteemed reputed taken & adjudged a Enslaved & Enslavers to all intents & purposes whatsoever.” ; also see Sherrill D. Wilson</span><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">,<i> New</i></span><i><u><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> York City's African Slaveowners: A Social and Material Culture History,</span></u></i><i><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></i><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">1994, Garland Publishing, pg. 38<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[36]</span></a> Williams, pg. 20<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[37]</span></a> McManus, pg. 23<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[38]</span></a> E. B. O’Callaghan, pg. 202</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[39]</span></a> <i>African Burial Grounds</i></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[40]</span></a> Stanley M. Elkins, <i>Slavery</i>, 1968, University of Chicago Press, pg. 96-97</span><span style="text-align: center;">9</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[41]</span></a> Elkins, pg. 94-95; Phillips, pg. 98-114, McManus, pg. 47-48; also see New York Gazette and Weekly Post Boy, March 26, 1749 and July 20, 1747; White, pg. 10-12, A. J. Williams-Myers, <i>Long Hammering</i>, 1994, Black World Press, pg. 7, Goodfriend, pg. 118-119</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[42]</span></a> Zilversmit, pg. 31; See also McManus</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[43]</span></a> See <i>The Origins and Nature of New World Slavery, </i>Hypertext History: Critical Issues of American History, Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, 2001</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[44]</span></a> McManus, pg. 54</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[45]</span></a> A. J. Williams-Myers, pg. 49</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[46]</span></a> John R. Spears, The American Slave Trade, 1901, Scribner’s Sons, pg. 90-91</span><span style="text-align: center;">10</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[47]</span></a> Chapter 624 of the Laws of 1734 of the Colony of New York</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[48]</span></a> Sydney Ernest Hammersly, <i>The History of Waterford, </i>1957, Published by Col. Sydney E. Hammersley, Waterford, NY, pg.195</span><span style="text-align: center;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[49]</span></a> Matthew T. Mellon, <i>Early American Views on Negro Slavery, </i>1969, Bergman Publishers, New York, pg. 165</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[50]</span></a> IBID; also see McManus, pg. 3</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[51]</span></a> Williams, pg.17</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[52]</span></a> Over a third of the advertisements in local newspapers indicated that enslaved fugitives left their enslavers to visit a spouse, a child, or other relatives.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[53]</span></a> Benjamin Quarles, <i>Black Abolitionists, </i>1969, Oxford University Press; McManus, pg. 139-140; White pg. 49</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[54]</span></a> Williams, pg. 46</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[55]</span></a> Mellon, pg. 166-167, also see pg. 32, 89; Herbert Aptheker, <i>American Negro Slave Revolts</i>, 1969, International Publishers, Co., pg. 18-52 </span><span style="text-align: center;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[56]</span></a> Chapter 149 of the Laws of 1705 of the Colony of New York</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[57]</span></a> IBID</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[58]</span></a> IBID; Similar policies existed in New Jersey and Pennsylvania, see Edward R. Turner, The Negro in Pennsylvania, 1911, Washington, D.C., pg. 26-29</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[59]</span></a> Chapter 308 of the Laws of 1715 of the Colony of New York</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[60]</span></a> IBID</span><span style="text-align: center;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[61]</span></a> Williams, pg. 49</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[62]</span></a> Chapter 181 of the Laws of 1708</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[63]</span></a> Williams, pg. 74</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[64]</span></a> IBID</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[65]</span></a> Williams-Myers, pg. 21</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[66]</span></a> Greene and Harrison, pg. 92, 95-102; McManus, pg. 25</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[67]</span></a> Thomas J. Davis, A Rumor of Revolt: The ‘Great Negro Plot’ in Colonial New York, 1985, Free Press, NYC, (Macmillan Inc.), pg. 252</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[68]</span></a> A. J. Williams-Myers, “Long Hammering”, 1994, Africa World Press, Inc., pg. 3</span><span style="text-align: center;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[69]</span></a> Jonathan Earle, “The Routledge Atlas of African American History,” 2000, Routledge, New York, pg. 26; McManus, pg. 123</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[70]</span></a> <i>African Burial Grounds</i></span><span style="text-align: center;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[71]</span></a> Benjamin Quarles, <i>Black Abolitionists, </i>1969, Oxford University Press; Herbert Aptheker, <i>American Negro Slave Revolts</i>, International Publishers, Co., pg. 172;<i> Africans in America</i>, Narrative- The Growth of Slavery in North America, pbs.org; Kenneth Scott, “The Slave Insurrection in New York in 1712”, <i>New York Historical Quarterly</i>, 1961, XLV, pg. 45; Herbert Aptheker, <i>Essays on the History of the Negro, </i>1945, NY: International Publishers, pg. 19; Thomas J. Davis, <i>A Rumor of Revolt: The “Great Negro Plot” in Colonial New York. </i>1985, Free Press MacMillian Inc., NYC, pg. 54-55</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[72]</span></a> Edgar Mayhew Bacon, <i>Chronicles of Tarrytown and Sleepy Hollow, </i>G.P. Putmans’s Sons, 1897, pg. 142</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[73]</span></a> Chapter 250 of the Laws of 1712 of the Colony of New York</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[74]</span></a> Earle, pg. 27</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[75]</span></a> Joyce D. Goodfriend, <i>Before the Melting Pot</i>, 1992, Princeton University Press, Introduction, pg. 6</span><span style="text-align: center;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[76]</span></a> Thomas J. Davis, pg. ix</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[77]</span></a> Earle, pg. 27; T. Wood Clarke, “The Negro Plot of 1741”, <i>New York History</i>, 1944, pg. 167-181, Thomas J. Davis, pg. ix; George Ellis, <i>The Puritan Age and Rule in the Colony of Massachusetts Bay 1629-1685</i>, 3<sup>rd</sup> ed. Boston, Houghton, Mifflin, 1891, pg. 563; Mrs. John King Van Rensselaer, <i>The Goede Vrouw of Mana-ha-ta at Home and in Society, 1609-1760, </i>1898, Charles Scribner’s Sons, Chapter XX<i>; </i>also see William smith, <i>The History of the Province of New York</i>, ed. Michael Kammen, 1972, Harvard University Press</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[78]</span></a> See Thomas J. Davis, A Rumor of Revolt: The ‘Great Negro Plot’ in Colonial New York, 1985, Free Press, NYC, (Macmillan Inc.)</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[79]</span></a> Williams, note 45, pg. 79</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[80]</span></a> Five other enslaved conspiracies were uncovered in New York State in the 18<sup>th</sup> century. The first conspiracy was in 1708; it involved a enslaved uprising in Long Island. One in 1761 in Schenectady, that mirrored the 1741 plot and the other was uncovered in Ulster County, its objective was a mass break for freedom to Canada. In Kingston in 1775, a foiled enslaved conspiracy to kill the inhabitants and burn the town of Kingston. In addition, in Albany in November of 1793, The “Black Arson” involved the burning of enslaver’s property. See McManus, pg. 139 and A. J. Williams-Myers, pg.6, 56-60</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[81]</span></a> O’Callaghan, Laws of New Netherlands, pg. 7</span><span style="text-align: center;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[82]</span></a> Williams, pg. 20</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[83]</span></a> The year 1830 represents the U.S. Federal Census’ cutoff date that this is the last year in which there is documentation, which lists Africans as enslavers of Africans in New York City. Also See <a href="about://" style="color: purple;">Sherrill D. Wilson</a></span><i><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">, New</span></i><i><u><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> York City's African Slaveowners: A Social and Material Culture History,</span></u></i><i><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></i><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">1994, Garland Publishing, pg. xi; also see 1830 Federal census; Carter G. Woodson; Eichholz and Rose, <i>NY State Manumissions</i>, Yosphe, for more information on this practice of African American slaveholders, and Goodfriend, <i>Before the Melting Pot</i>, pg. 117</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[84]</span></a> See Larry Kroger, <i>Black Slaveowners: Free Black Masters in South Carolina</i>, 1985</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[85]</span></a> See Sherrill D. Wilson</span><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">,<i> New</i></span><i><u><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> York City's African Slaveowners: A Social and Material Culture History,</span></u></i><i><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></i><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">1994, Garland Publishing</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[86]</span></a> Carter G. Woodson, 1924, pg. v</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[87]</span></a> Wilson, pg. 28</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[88]</span></a> Williams-Myers, pg. 5 </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[89]</span></a> Mellon, pg. 167</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[90]</span></a> See Quarles</span><span style="text-align: center;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[91]</span></a> Richard Morris, Forward, <i>The History of Negro Slavery in New York</i> by Edgar J. McManus; Kenneth M. Stampp, <i>The Peculiar Institution</i>, 1956, Vintage Books, pg. 271-272; Richard C. Wade, <i>Slavery in the Cities </i>1964, Oxford University Press, pg. 6</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[92]</span></a> Shane White<i>, Somewhat more independent: the end of slavery in New York City, 1770-1810</i>, Athens Press-University of Georgia, 1991, pg. 1 and pg. 16; Thomas J. White, pg. ix</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[93]</span></a> Williams-Myers, pg. 3</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[94]</span></a> White, pg. 19 </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[95]</span></a> Williams-Myers, pg. 3</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[96]</span></a> White pg. 5-6</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[97]</span></a> IBID</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[98]</span></a> Greene and Harrington, pg. 105</span><span style="text-align: center;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[99]</span></a> White, pg. 52</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[100]</span></a></span><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;"> The efforts of petitioning and protest on the part of organized White workers and tradesmen, however, recalls disturbing similarities to present day efforts of New York State Trade Unions to secure “Project Labor Agreements” in both the public and private sectors of New York State’s construction industry, to assure work and maximize profit for their members. Its resulting effect is the limitation and/or elimination of non-union, e.g., African American contractors, participation in major construction projects. </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[101]</span></a> McManus, pg. 53, Williams-Myers, pg.3</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[102]</span></a> Williams quoting NY City Common Council Ordinance of 1731<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[103]</span></a> Note: Webster’s defines ‘vendue’ as: Auction, a public sale of anything by outcry to the highest bidder.</span><span style="text-align: center;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[104]</span></a> Journal of the Assembly of the State of New York, 1804, pg. 39-45</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[105]</span></a> Sherrill D. Wilson, <i>New York City African Slaveowners: A social and material culture history</i>, 1994, Garland Publishing, pg. ix; A. J. F. Van Laer, <i>Early records of the City and County of Albany and Colony of Rensselaerswyck, </i>1916-1919, Albany: University of the State of new York, pg. 149</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[106]</span></a> Eric Foner quoted in “Honoring Slaves: Calls for Slavery Restitution Getting Louder”, loper.org</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[107]</span></a> Morris, Foreword, <i>A History of Negro Slavery in New York</i>, pg. ix; also see Thomas Archdeacon, <i>New York City, 1664-1710, Conquest and Change, </i>1976, Cornell University Press</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[108]</span></a> A. J. Williams-Myers, pg. 139-141.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[109]</span></a> IBID</span><span style="text-align: center;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[110]</span></a> Leon F. Litwack, <i>North of Slavery, </i>1961, The University of Chicago Press, pg. 39</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[111]</span></a> IBID; Austin Steward, <i>Twenty-Two Years A Slave and Forty Years a Freeman </i>Rochester: Wm. Alling, 1857, pg. 125, 167</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[112]</span></a> Graham Russell Hodges, pg. 5-6</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[113]</span></a> Williams-Myers, pg. 142-143</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[114]</span></a> <i>Narrative of Sojourner Truth,</i> 1850, Boston, pg. 14-15; Liwack, pg. 97</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[115]</span></a> Jones, Katherine Butler, “They called it Timbucto”<u>, </u><i>Orion Magazine</i><u>,</u> Winter 1998, pg. 29</span><span style="text-align: center;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[116]</span></a> Jones, pg. 30</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[117]</span></a> IBID</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[118]</span></a> IBID</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[119]</span></a> Jones, pg. 31</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[120]</span></a> Earle, pg. 38 <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[121]</span></a> O’Callaghan, <i>Laws of New Netherland, </i>pg. 36-37</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[122]</span></a> Lanier, pg. 24</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[123]</span></a> James Fenimore Cooper, <i>Satanstoe or the Littlepage Manuscripts, </i>1890, W. A. Townsend and Company, NY, pg. 8-81</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[124]</span></a> Lanier, pg. 43; <i>African Burial Grounds</i></span> </p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[125]</span></a> Sherrill D. Wilson</span><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">,<i> New</i></span><i><u><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> York City's African Slaveowners: A Social and Material Culture History,</span></u></i><i><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></i><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">1994, Garland Publishing, pg. 37, Williams, pg. 15</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[126]</span></a> Lanier, pg. 24, also see Edward Abdy, <i>Journal of a Residence and Tour in the United States of North America, from April, 1833 to Oct., 1834, </i>London: J. Murray, 1835; Wilson, pg. 39; Williams, pg. 15; Condon; McManus; Ottley; also see Ashbury, 1977; Blackmar, 1989; and Stokes, 1915-1928</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[127]</span></a> Lanier, pg. 83</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[128]</span></a> Lanier, pg. 84</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[129]</span></a> Goodfriend, pg. 116 <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[130]</span></a> T. Watson Smith, “The Slave in Canada”, <i>Nova Scotia Historical Society Collections, </i>Vol. X, Pg. 23; Gail Buckley, American Patriots, 2001, Random House, pg. 35; Graham Russell Hodges, pg. 47</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[131]</span></a> Chapter 1700 of the Laws of 1775 of the Colony of New York; Benjamin Quarles, The Negro in the American Revolution, 1961, Chapel Hill Books, pg. 17</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[132]</span></a> Quarles, pg. 140</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[133]</span></a> Chapter of the Laws of 1781 of New York State; W.E. Hartgrove, “The Negro Soldier in the American Revolution”, <i>Journal of Negro History</i>, 1916, vol. 1, pgs. 113-119; Edgar J. Mc Manus, “Anti-slavery Legislation in New York”, <i>The Journal of Negro History, </i>vol. XLVI, October, 1961, pg. 208</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">[134]</span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> The Council of Revision was established in 1777, it was created to ensure that laws inconsistent with the Constitution did not become law. The Council was composed of the Governor, any two of the following: the Chancellor and Judges of the State Supreme Court. Their charge was to review all the bills that passed the NY State Senate and Assembly before the bills became law. If they considered a bill to be improper, it was sent back to its House of origination and reconsidered. The negative actions of the Council constituted a veto of the legislation and required two-thirds of both Houses to become law. The veto powers of the Council of Revision are now vested in the Governor, alone, after the Council’s abolishment in 1821. <b>This restructuring can be attributed to the Council vetoes of previous proposed legislation that denied enfranchisement to African American</b>s, See Alfred B. Street, <i>The Council of Revision of the State of New York….,</i> 1859, Wm. Gould, Publisher, pg. 5-6</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[135]</span></a> Street, pg. 268-269 </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[136]</span></a> Street, pg. 269; Liwack, pg. 8; Zilversmit, pg. 147-150; McManus, Journal of Negro History, pg. 209-210; </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[137]</span></a> Chapter 68 of the Laws of 1785 of New York State</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[138]</span></a> Chapter 40 of the Laws of 1788 of New York State</span><span style="text-align: center;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[139]</span></a> Chapter 62 of the Laws of 1799 of New York State </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[140]</span></a> Zilversmit, pg. 182; White, pg. 20-23, 54-55</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[141]</span></a> William Strickland, <i>Journal of a Tour of the United States of America 1794-1795</i>, ed. J.E. Strickland, 1971, New York Historical Society, pg. 163-164</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[142]</span></a> This “Maintenance fee” was reduced by Chapter 188 of the Laws of 1801 to $3.00 and again reduced by Chapter 52 of the Laws of 1802 to $2.00 per child per month.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Note: The New York State Archives contains extensive records with respect to these transactions, however, due to age a good portion of these records are barely legible. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[143]</span></a> Journal of the Assembly of the State of New York, 1804 and 1805, pg. 56</span><span style="text-align: center;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[144]</span></a> Zilversmit, pg. 182<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <b>NOT</b>E: The Gradual Abolition Act proved to be the precursor for the future enacted “Foster Care System” in NY and other northern states.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[145]</span></a> Chapter 62 of the Laws of 1799 of New York State; Harry P. Yoshpe, “Records of Enslaved Manumission in New York During the Colonial and Early National Periods”, <i>Journal of Negro History, </i>vol. XXVI, 1941, pgs. 78-104, Also see Eichholz and Rose, <i>New York Manumissions,</i> 1977, pg. 221-222; White, pg.<i> </i>28-29<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[146]</span></a> Zilversmit, pg. 213</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[147]</span></a> Chapter of the Laws of New York State of 1804 <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[148]</span></a> Chapter 77 of the Laws of 1807 of New York State</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[149]</span></a> Chapter 906 of the Laws of 1808 of New York State</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[150]</span></a> Chapter188 of the Laws of 1814 of New York State <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[151]</span></a> <i>Sample Entries Abolitionism, </i>The Encyclopedia of New York State, nyhistory.com</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[152]</span></a> White, pg. 10</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[153]</span></a> <i>The American Colonization Society, </i>Denison.edu </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[154]</span></a> See <i>A Brief Account of General Jackson’s Dealings in Negroes, in a Series of Letters and Documents by His Own Neighbors, </i>a campaign document issued in 1828 by the National Republicans of New York State. It depicts candidate Jackson as an abuser of his enslaved Africans. Connecticut Historical Society Collections (African American Resources) </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[155]</span></a> See American Colonization Society, <i>Columbia Encyclopedia, </i>Sixth edition, 2001; American Colonization Society, Africana.com; The American Colonization Society website, Denison.edu</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[156]</span></a> See The Encyclopedia of New York State, The American Colonization Society website, Denison.edu; Also see: McManus, Zilversmit, Litwack and Quarles.</span> </p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[157]</span></a> See Herbert Aptheker and Carter C. Woodson</span><span style="text-align: center;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[158]</span></a> Quarles, pg. 15</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[159]</span></a> James Boardman, <i>America, and the Americans…. By a Citizen of the World</i>, 1833, Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green, & Longman, pg. 244-249; </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[160]</span></a> Roi Ottley and William J. Weatherby, eds. <i>The Negro in New York: An Informal Social History, </i>1967, Oceana Publications, pg. 59-60</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[161]</span></a> A. J. Williams-Myers, Long Hammering, 1994, Africa World Press, pg. 55 </span> </p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[162]</span></a> McManus, <i>A History of Negro Slavery in New York</i>, pg. 170-177;<i> </i>Litwack, pg. 216-223; White, pg. 38<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">NOTE: For a more in-depth accounting of the kidnapping of free people of African descent - for sale to the south, see <b>12<i> </i>Years a Slave</b>, Solomon Northrup’s memoir and narrative, 1853. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[163]</span></a> Sherrill D. Wilson, Foreword, pg. vii</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[164]</span></a> Quarles, pg. 23-41</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[165]</span></a> Litwack, pg. 216-223; also see Quarles, <i>Black Abolitionists</i></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[166]</span></a> Martin R. Delany, <i>The Condition, Elevation, Emigration and Destiny of the Colored People of the United States Politically Considered</i>, (Philadelphia, published by the author, 1852). Reprinted by Arno Press, 1968, pgs. 10, 24-25, 27</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[167]</span></a></span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> Rev. Jeremiah R. B. Smith was born in Brooklyn April 19, 1846. After his father’s death he became a pupil in the Model Grammar School and Upper Canada College at Toronto, Canada. He became a writer at the <i>Toronto Globe</i> at the age of thirteen, and afterward was a contributor to the <i>Anglo-African</i>, a newspaper printed in the interests of the Negro race. After the war in 1866, he became a correspondent of the <i>Democrat and Chronicle </i></span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><i><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">of Rochester</span></i><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">, whereupon he became editor and proprietor of the <i>Western Echo</i> at Bath, N.Y. <i>The Echo</i> was the organ of the colored men of the state, and after being moved to Utica for a time, it moved to Brooklyn in 1881. </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[168]</span></a> Quarles, <i>Black Abolitionists, </i>also see Zilversmit</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[169]</span></a> <i>An Historical Memoir of the Pennsylvania Society for the Abolition of Slavery; Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage and for Improving the Conditions of the African Race, 1848</i>, by Edward Needles – pg. 64 as quoted in Quarles, pg. 13; McManus, pgs.182-184</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[170]</span></a> See Gilder Lehrman, <i>The Origins and Nature of New World Slavery</i>, Abolition</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">[171]</span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> Chapter 188 of the Laws of 1817 of New York<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Note: C. E. Pierre in his article, “The Work of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> in Foreign Parts (SPG) among the Negroes in the Colonies”, <i>The Journal of Negro </i><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> History</span></i><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">, Vol. 1, 1916, pg. 349-360; suggests that the difficulty that the (SPG)<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> Encountered with respect to the conversion of slaves in the Colonies came from the <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> enslavers and not from the enslaved, themselves. He states “that the missionaries of <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> that colony were frustrated by the slaveowners who would by no means permit their <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> Negroes to be baptized, having a false notion that a christened slave is by law free”<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[172]</span></a> Edwin Vernon Morgan, “Slavery in New York: The Status of the Slave under the English Colonial Government,” <i>“Harvard Historical Review”</i> 5, January 1925, pg. 338, also see A. J. Williams-Myers, pg. 43<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Note: This amended version of the 1664 Duke’s Law further stated that this law “shall not set at liberty any Negro or Indian slave, who shall have turned Christian after they had been bought by any person.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[173]</span></a> See Zilversmit, McManus and C. E. Pierre</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[174]</span></a> Zilversmit, pg. 8-9; Graham Russell Hodges, pg. 35-39; also see McManus; Pierre<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Note</span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">: In 1706, the Colony of New York passed a law “An Act to Incourage the Baptizing of Negro, Indian and Mulatto Slaves”, it was meant to reassure slaveowners that if they baptized their slaves they would not “become free and ought to be sett at Liberty.” <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[175]</span></a> C. E. Pierre, pg. 357; see “Special Report of United States Commission on Education”, 1871, pg. 362; also see Zilversmit; McManus</span><span style="text-align: center;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[176]</span></a> IBID </span><span style="text-align: center;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">177 McManus, pg. 76; David Humphreys, <i>Account of the Endeavors Used by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts to Instruct the Negro Slaveowners in New York, </i>1730, London</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[178]</span></a> Williams, pg. 18</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[179]</span></a> Quarles, pg. 122</span><span style="text-align: center;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[180]</span></a> Hodges, <i>Enslavedry and Freedom,</i> xii</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[181]</span></a> <b>NOTE</b>: This practice was not restricted to New York State. In Washington, D.C. in 1862, Congress abolished enslavement in the district and paid cash compensations to the holders of enenslavedd Africans who established claims within a specified period. See Wilson, 18</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[182]</span></a> Chapter 188 of the Laws of 1817 of New York</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[183]</span></a> Kruger, 865<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[184]</span></a></span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">Charter of the International Military Tribunal</span><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">, Nuremberg Trial Proceedings Vol. 1; </span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">II. JURISDICTION AND GENERAL PRINCIPLES Article 6</span></p><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[185]</span></a><i> </i></span></b><i><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Report of the World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance</span></i><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">; Sources, causes, forms and contemporary manifestations of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance<b>; </b>Durban, 31 August - 8 September 2001; hereafter referred to as WCAR Report.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><a href="about://" style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: Garamond, serif;">[186]</span></a> Ibid<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">[186]</span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> WCAR Report, <i>“Provisions of effective remedies, recourse, redress, and compensatory and other measures at the national, regional and international levels”,</i> #100, 21<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">BIBLIOGRAPHY</span></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><b><u><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">BOOKS</span></u></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><b><u><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></u></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Abdy, Edward, <i>Journal of a Residence and Tour in the United States of North America, from April, 1833 to Oct., 1834, </i>London<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Aptheker, Herbert, <i>American Negro Slave Revolts</i>, 1969, International Publishers, Co.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Aptheker, Herbert, <i>Essays on the History of the Negro, </i>1945, NY: International Publishers<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Archdeacon, Thomas, <i>New York City, 1664-1710, Conquest and Change, </i>1976, Cornell University Press<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Bacon, Edgar Mayhew, <i>Chronicles of Tarrytown and Sleepy Hollow, </i>G.P. Putmans’s Sons, 1897<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Boardman, James, <i>America, and the Americans…. By a Citizen of the World</i>, 1833, Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green, & Longman <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Cooper, James Fenimore, <i>Satanstoe or the Littlepage Manuscripts, </i>1890, W. A. Townsend and Company, NY<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Davis, Thomas J., “A Rumor of Revolt: The ‘Great Negro Plot’ in Colonial New York, 1985, Free Press, NYC, (Macmillan Inc.)<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Delany, Martin R., <i>The Condition, Elevation, Emigration and Destiny of the Colored People of the United States Politically Considered</i>, (Philadelphia, published by the author, 1852). Reprinted by Arno Press, 1968<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Earle, Jonathan, “The Routledge Atlas of African American History,” 2000, Routledge, New York<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Eichholz and Rose, <i>New York Manumissions,</i> 1977<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Elkins, Stanley M., <i>Slavery</i>, 1968, University of Chicago Press<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> Ellis, George, <i>The Puritan Age and Rule in the Colony of Massachusetts Bay 1629-1685</i>, 3<sup>rd</sup> ed. 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Arthur, Christopher Ricciardi, and Alyssa Loorya, “<i>Remembering Africa Under the Eaves</i>,” Archaeology Magazine, vol. 54 no. 3, May/June 200<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Clarke, T. 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Watson, “The Slave in Canada,” <i>Nova Scotia Historical Society Collections, </i>Vol. X<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Special Report of United States Commission on Education,” 1871<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><i><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></i><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><i><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">The Origins and Nature of New World Slavery, </span></i><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Hypertext History: Critical Issues of <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">American History, Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, 2001<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Yoshpe, Harry P., “Records of Enslaved Manumission in New York During the Colonial and Early National Periods”, <i>Journal of Negro History, </i>vol. XXVI, 1941 <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><b><u><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></u></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><b><u><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">NEW YORK LAW</span></u></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><b><u><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></u></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Chapter 149 of the Laws of 1705 of the Colony of New York<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; 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margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Chapter188 of the Laws of 1814 of New York State<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><b><u><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">INTERNET SITES</span></u></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><b><u><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></u></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><i><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">African Burial Grounds</span></i><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">, History Statement, General Services Administration, gsa.gov,<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><b><u><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></u></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><i><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Africans in America</span></i><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">, Narrative- The Growth of Slavery in North America, pbs.org; <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><b><u><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></u></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Foner, Eric quoted in “Honoring Slaves: Calls for Slavery Restitution Getting Louder,” loper.org<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><i><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Sample Entries Abolitionism, </span></i><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">The Encyclopedia of New York State, nyhistory.com<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><b><u><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></u></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">American Colonization Society, <i>Columbia Encyclopedia, </i>Sixth edition, 2001; American Colonization Society, Africana.com; The American Colonization Society website, Denison.edu<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><b><u><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></u></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Lehrman, Gilder, <i>The Origins and Nature of New World Slavery</i>, Abolition<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><b><u><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></u></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><i><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Charter of the International Military Tribunal</span></i><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">, Nuremberg Trial Proceedings Vol. 1; II.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><b><u><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></u></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><i><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">Report of the World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance</span></i><span face="-webkit-standard, serif">; Durban, 31 August - 8 September 2001<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><b><u><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> </span></u></b><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><span face="-webkit-standard, serif"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><o:p> </o:p></p></div>DLJhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14674534926004739081noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3330136066649493860.post-40394934198017938952023-06-26T13:30:00.018-07:002023-06-27T06:48:39.321-07:00Sacred Space Realized: Frank Lloyd Wright’s Design of Graycliff<p><span face="Arial, sans-serif">By <a href="mailto:bolandcenter@outlook.com" target="_blank">Paul Lubienecki, PhD</a><br /></span><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif"> <br /></span></i> Any sacred space, for any religion, has been a symbol of a primordial place of spiritual redemption and peace; it is a concretized expression of a nostalgia for paradise. The sacred place is seen as an axis mundi: an intersection of heaven and earth with humankind.[1] An object, a tree, or a building was the hinge, the connector between these worlds, and was the sign and symbol of that affiliation. This affirmation of the spiritual and the architectural is realized in Frank Lloyd Wright’s design of Graycliff in Derby, New York. Originally designed as a family dwelling and the summer home of Darwin and Isabelle Martin, Wright incorporated his architectural axiom that “form and function should be one, joined in a spiritual union.” [2] Therefore, Graycliff's design has attained an unintentional theological basis in its form and purpose. Planned as a home, it resonates with the Architect’s interior beliefs of family, nature, and the Spiritual.[3]</p><p style="text-align: left;">Frank Lloyd Wright had experience designing houses of worship: Unity Temple in Oak Park, Illinois, and Beth Shalom Synagogue in Elkins Park, Pennsylvania, are two of his most notable examples of many. He was raised in a liberal, Unitarian, and intellectual environment. His Unitarian uncle, the Reverend Jenkins Lloyd Jones, was another considerable influence who continued to guide Wright spiritually and encouraged him as an architect. These family influences fostered a lifelong sense of a more significant source in his work.</p>Throughout his life and career, Wright maintained that he always considered himself a deeply religious person and generally spoke of nature and architecture spiritually, declaring, “I believe in God, only I spell it Nature."[3]<br /><br />Graycliff’s purpose as a family home is not unique, as Wright produced plans for many family dwellings. In Buffalo, he is noted for Martin House, Heath House, Davidson, and Barton Houses designs. In 1951, the Piarist Fathers, a religious order from Hungry, purchased the former Martin Family estate in Derby, New York, from the Buffalo Phoenix Corporation for $50,000. [4] It became a focal point for education and Hungarian culture in the area. The primary residence and other buildings were suitable and would need some alterations to accommodate the needs of these unassuming and humble priests. The conversion of the summer estate into a residence for a religious order of Catholic men and as a worship site is not novel.<a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftn5">[5]</a> <div><br /></div><div>When Christianity was a forbidden sect, the early Church assembled at private residences for worship and left it indistinguishable from other houses' archeological evidence.<a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftn6">[6]</a> What distinguishes this particular Wright design is its ultimate transformation and use of that space, which can be considered sacred. The Architect’s original plan never envisioned the property as a prayer and worship center. But the function and symbolic focus of Graycliff is sanctified in its architectural content, as described this way by Wright:<br /><br /><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;">“The building as architecture is born out of the</blockquote></blockquote><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;">heart of man, permanent consort to the ground,</blockquote></blockquote><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;">comrade to the trees, a true reflection of a man in</blockquote></blockquote><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;">the realm of his own spirit. His building is therefore</blockquote></blockquote><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;">consecrated space wherein he seeks refuge, recreation,</blockquote></blockquote><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;">and repose of body but especially mind.”<a href="#">[7]</a></blockquote></blockquote></blockquote><p style="text-align: left;">While physical structures were adjusted or constructed by the Piarist Fathers, the evolution of Martin’s summer house into a sacred space was achieved naturally, organically, and spiritually from its initial conception. Wright’s reflections on architecture clearly demonstrate his indwelling persona: </p><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px;">“Any building is a by-product of eternal living force, </blockquote></blockquote><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px;">a spiritual force taking forms in time and place </blockquote></blockquote><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px;">appropriate to man. We must remember that </blockquote></blockquote><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px;">architecture is not these buildings themselves but </blockquote></blockquote><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px;">something far greater. We must believe architecture</blockquote></blockquote><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px;">to be the living spirit that made buildings what they were.”<a href="#">[8</a><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftn8">]</a></blockquote></blockquote></blockquote><p>With the priests as the residents of Graycliff, a sanctuary was constructed for religious services. St. Michael’s Chapel, built by the Piarist Fathers, was installed before the liturgical reforms of the Second Vatican Council. That particular sacred space was created as a ceremonial center of worship serving the needs of the faith community. Vatican II’s Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy emphasized that the worshiping community is the Church, not the building. It refreshingly acknowledged that sacred spaces change and can continue to change by permitting the Catholic parish community to modify their spaces to suit local needs.<a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftn11">[11]</a> The Piarist Fathers altered the area of the south terrace for worship space which is within the norms of the Catholic Church. It stood as a place of prayer and a sign of worship and connection between the people of God on earth and their Creator.<a href="#">[12]</a></p><p style="text-align: left;">Wright designed the Unitarian Unity Temple in Chicago and connected it with Unity House to have a double presence as a worship space and a public auditorium. Worship is a church’s primary function, and its social or public life should be symbolically linked with its religious purpose.<a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftn13">[13]</a> With Unity Temple, Wright asserted this statement to be an architectural fact. At Graycliff, the Piarist Fathers reaffirmed this in using the property for worship and public functions. Sacred space, then, should not be a formalized, staid location but one that is a representation. It is where one awaits a fundamentally different experience; the “outside” world has been banned and replaced by a new inner symbolic space.<a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftn14">[14]</a></p>From the time of ancient cultures to the present, religious architecture is a witness to the presence of belief within that culture or community. The sacred site was a manifestation of the deity.<a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftn15">[15]</a> Traditionally, these structures have chosen prominent placements to declare their distinction from the surrounding secular edifices.<a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftn16">[16]</a> The sacred place was constructed of precious materials to set it apart from all other structures. The architects and builders of ancient cultures used the relationship of the sun to the earth to create sacred places.<a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftn17">[17]</a> Geometric patterns were in place as a mark of distinction and to distinguish the sacred form from the formless profane surroundings.<a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftn18">[18]</a> Water often possesses strong symbolic content in religion, and ablution is a ritual shared by all faiths.<a href="#">[19]</a> <p style="text-align: left;">Wright created Graycliff utilizing the local stone with its iron oxide color to elevate this place from the profane and to have the rocks come alive. He repeats the geometric diamond pattern found in the house's stones, fixtures, and furniture. Lake Erie symbolizes a “holy water” font for ritual blessings and soul cleansing. Wright’s design of the house on the lake shore clearly commingles water with the space washing over the individual in a new baptism. The main house is angled to capture the sun’s rays that bathe the house in a penetrating diagonal path as if to energize the building. Wright designed Graycliff to capture sunlight at its optimum. The natural light penetrates the house casting diagonal shadows across the floor and spreading to the exterior shaded terrace. In a decorative motif found in the stone, Wright expressed the path of the summer sun, particularly the summer solstice. The joints of the flagstone terrace floor are set at the same angle as the setting sun on this day. It represents the natural light filling not only the structure but the individual. <br /> <br />Mayan architectural influence is recognized at Graycliff. Wright felt that Mayan temples and buildings, with their extended terraces and the scale of their horizontal stone construction, were the “purest kinship to elemental nature.”<a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftn20">[20]</a> The physical location is set apart from the mundane, like a monastery. He has created, if not a temple, a sacred space. Here, one experiences a sense of invitation to an inner spiritual retreat reconnecting man to his Creator through the earth, water, sky, and light. </p><p style="text-align: left;">The three fundamental tenets of fides (loyalty), proles (children), and Sacramentum (the indissoluble unity of husband and wife) were the essential basis of Roman Catholic canon law concerning marriage and the family that emerged in the early Middle Ages.<a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftn21">[21]</a> During the Reformation, Luther ennobled the humble home as the parents and children tended to their daily chores. Marriage is a religious state to him.<a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftn22">[22]</a></p><p style="text-align: left;">Wright’s residential designs, particularly in the Prairie Style, were to be shelters for the family. They were built as protection from the external elements and implied an internal healthy psychological atmosphere. </p><p style="text-align: left;">From his childhood experiences, he wanted to create a close-knit family living joyfully in therapeutic surroundings.<a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftn23">[23]</a> Wright perceived the family as an intimate group within a larger community. The family gathered by the hearth's fire, for it is here, at the center of the house, that the family maintains the sacred fires. The hearth, for Wright, was the altar of the house.<a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftn24">[24]</a> To the ancient Greeks and Romans, fire symbolized purity. In the Catholic tradition, the Paschal or Easter candle represents the light of Christ. An eternal flame, important at grave sites or memorials, is an extension of the ever-glowing hearth at the center of the home.<a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftn25">[25]</a> The expression of this is visually and interiorly present at Graycliff. </p><p style="text-align: left;"> The Martin family’s time at Graycliff was certainly memorable. That time should be considered sacred, not in a liturgical sense, but from the sacramental and consecrated quality of marriage and family. They lived in a place designed by integrating natural elements into the structure by an architect who saw God in nature. In architecture, Wright submits, “God meets with nature in the relative sphere.”<a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftn26">[26]</a> By mixing the organic architecture with that of the family/community, a sacredness to that time and place has been achieved. <br /> <br />With the acquisition of the property by the Piarist Fathers, the notion of sacred space is self-evident. The tenet is that the church building is the house of the Church, in the Biblical sense of that word.<a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftn27">[27]</a></p><p style="text-align: left;">Ordinarily, the transfiguration of the south terrace into a chapel was the evidentiary sign of sacred space. This new addition, adorned with a crucifix, altar, candles, and pews, does not make the space holy. The symbolic purpose is domus ecclesiae significant -the house of stones that shelters the faith community and welcomes those to partake in the mystical union with Christ at the altar.<a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftn28">[28]</a> That designates the sanctity of space at Graycliff in a traditional manner. It is not a gathering place for religious participants who ritually act out their roles with the architecture as only a theatrical backdrop.<a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftn29">[29]</a> The “performance” unfolding here is the mingling between the sacred and the secular, between heaven and earth-God and humankind.</p><p style="text-align: left;">Officially, the Catholic Church has not adopted any particular style of church art or architecture.<a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftn30">[30]</a> Church architecture is to be true to the situation it is trying to serve and express; it must say that a church building creates a sense of community.<a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftn31">[31]</a> Graycliff was a setting for the community of the Martin family and their friends and, later, for the Piarist Order. The sense of gathering and unity establishes the consecration of the site. </p><p>The use of the sacred space impacts the community's existence, as lived out in the Liturgy, prayer, or worship. The Piarist Fathers celebrated the Mass in the chapel but would also conduct an outdoor Liturgy during the May crowning or the August Lawn Fete. The precise location did not diminish the worship service, as Liturgy is at the very core of the Church’s life. Private and personal devotions are not denied, but worship in the Christian community is a communal act.<a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftn32">[32]</a> A permanent structure designated for the corporate worship of God is not strictly essential. Precise location does not tarnish the meaning. <br /> <br />The addition of the chapel and Catholic school, the placement of a statue of the Virgin Mary at the front circle, and the estate’s role as a novitiate and spiritual retreat center merely signified the utilization of the facilities as Roman Catholic. The time of the Piarist community at Graycliff was a formalization of the buildings and grounds as being sacred. It symbolized the Traditional and was a focal point for prayer, reconciliation, and redemption. The mission of the Derby House, like that of the Church, was to strive for the installation of the kingdom of God here and now. In a 1903 letter to Darwin Martin discussing Christian Science and religion, Wright would prophetically underscore this point: “It is a church, however as are other churches, a man-made effort to live about the details of every day, the life revealed by Christ.<a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftn33">[33]</a> </p><p style="text-align: left;">The main house is not a church edifice but a spiritual house built from living stones. The Martins’ spiritual home is within the sacred space of the family. The Catholic priests maintain that it is a spiritual house due to the rituals of the Liturgy. Wright’s notion of living stones integrates the local rock into the structure, while the Piarist Fathers consider the people of God to be the living stones. <br /> <br />These varying notions and beliefs of sacred space and its use are fused at Graycliff. The concept of sacred space, be it from a traditional religious stance, a humanist perspective, or an architectural plan, enhance the experience of this site. It is easy to comprehend how the family is perceived as a sacred unit. It is conventional to assume sanctity to space occupied by a religious community. With rapt admiration, it is discovered how Wright designed a space incorporating his interior life and beliefs for a house and property that could become and did become sacred in its form and function. </p><p style="text-align: left;">Graycliff continues to saturate the visitor with awe and inspiration as there is a felt presence here where heaven and earth have joined. Regardless of an individual’s spiritual perspective, there is an invitation to experience oneness with nature and an individual’s concept of God in this sacred space. This impression is created from the structure's design and the essence of its use over the decades as a family home and later as a religious community. </p><p style="text-align: left;">Wright considered his organic style of architecture to be a “fourth dimension,” as he viewed space as tangible and intangible. He advanced this to the spiritual, speculating that the ultimate mission of this organic style was a path toward the universal salvation of mankind.<a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftn34">[34]</a> Wright believed all his structures served a higher purpose as if they were transcendental in form and substance. He endeavored to make present the understanding of the building as a sacred act and buildings as sacred places.<a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftn35">[35]</a></p><p style="text-align: left;">At Graycliff, there is an appreciation for the sacredness of that space: the use of materials, the visual beauty of the site, the remembered sanctity of the family, and the memory of the religious community at worship. All this brings an aura of spirituality to the visitor.</p><p style="text-align: left;"> A coexistence occurs here that may not appear obvious but is intended by the creativity of Wright. In connecting all the components of earth and heaven, family, and worship, he has established Graycliff as a singular entity in its form and function as a sanctuary. The Catholic Church validates the union of Architect and structure when it proclaims: <br /></p><br /><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px;"><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;">“Architects and artists give glory to God through</blockquote></blockquote><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;">their work. They communicate something of</blockquote></blockquote><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;">their intuition of the divine and through their</blockquote></blockquote><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;">imagination give some insight into the mysteries</blockquote></blockquote><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><blockquote style="border: medium; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;">of faith, which are inaccessible to reason alone.”<a href="#">[36]</a></blockquote></blockquote></blockquote><p style="text-align: left;">“Reality is spirit, the essence brooding just behind all aspects.”<a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftn37">[37]</a> He did not view life as symbolized in his buildings but embodied in the occupation of that space. By this, the occupants of Graycliff, both the Martins and Piarist Fathers, confirmed this place as the ultimate expression of sacred space.</p><p style="text-align: left;"><br /><b>About the author:</b> <b>Dr. Lubienecki is the founding director of the Boland Center for the Study of Labor and Religion. He has published and taught in the Catholic Labor Colleges, that educated workers about their rights and duties.</b></p><div><p style="text-align: left;"><br /></p></div><div><div><div style="text-align: left;"><o:p> </o:p></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: -1in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><div><b>Bibliography</b><br clear="all" /><hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" /><div id="ftn1"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 18.4px; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" title=""><sup><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><sup>[1]</sup></span></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="line-height: 13.8px;">Thomas Barrie, <u>Spiritual Path, Sacred Place. Myth, Ritual, and Meaning in Architecture. </u>(Boston: Shambhala Publications, 1996), 66.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn2"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 18.4px; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" title=""><sup><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><sup>[2]</sup></span></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="line-height: 13.8px;">Wright, <u>The Future of Architecture</u>, (New York: Bramhall House, 1953)</span><span face="Arial, sans-serif">, </span><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="line-height: 13.8px;"> 322.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn3"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 18.4px; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" title=""><sup><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><sup>[3]</sup></span></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="line-height: 13.8px;">Joseph M. Siry, <u>Unity Temple, Frank Lloyd Wright and Architecture for Liberal Religion</u>. (Cambridge: University Press, 1996), 12.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn4"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" title=""><sup><sup>[4]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif">Ketterl, “Graycliff, A Proposal for the Rehabilitation of a Master Work,” without pagination. </span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn5"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5" title=""><sup><sup>[5]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif">There have been, and continues to be, properties on the shores of Lake Erie designed for religious purposes. The Passionist Order of Catholic Priests operated a boy’s school and minor seminary in Dunkirk, NY, concurrently with Graycliff. It closed in the late 1960s. Protestant denominations also operate retreat centers and religious camps along the lake.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn6"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref6" name="_ftn6" title=""><sup><sup>[6]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif">Richard Kitchener, <u>Theology in Stone, Church Architecture from Byzantium to Berkeley</u>, (Oxford: University Press, 2004), 70.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn7"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref7" name="_ftn7" title=""><sup><sup>[7]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif">Robert McCarter, ed., <u>On and By Frank Lloyd Wright. A Primer of Architectural Principles</u>, (London:<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"> Phaidon press Ltd., 2005), </span><span face="Arial, sans-serif"> </span><span face="Arial, sans-serif">264.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn8"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref8" name="_ftn8" title=""><sup><sup>[8]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif">Frank Lloyd Wright, <u>The Future of Architecture</u>, (New York: Bramhall House, 1953), 52.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn9"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref9" name="_ftn9" title=""><sup><sup>[9]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif">Paul Eli Ivey, <u>Prayers in Stone. Christian Science Architecture in the United States, 1894-1930. </u> (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1999), 118.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn10"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref10" name="_ftn10" title=""><sup><sup>[10]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif">Ibid., 118.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn11"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref11" name="_ftn11" title=""><sup><sup>[11]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif">Nelson, ed., <u>American Sanctuary, Understanding Sacred Spaces</u>, (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006), 141.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn12"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref12" name="_ftn12" title=""><sup><sup>[12]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif"> Joseph Duffy, D.D., <u>The Place of Worship. Pastoral Directory on the Building and Reordering of</u> <u> Churches</u>. Carlow, Ireland: Veritas Publications and the Irish Institute of Pastoral Liturgy, 1966)</span><span face="Arial, sans-serif">, </span><span face="Arial, sans-serif"> 17.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn13"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref13" name="_ftn13" title=""><sup><sup>[13]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif">Siry, <u>Unity Temple, Frank Lloyd Wright and Architecture for Liberal Religion</u>. (Cambridge: University Press, 1996), 116.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn14"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref14" name="_ftn14" title=""><sup><sup>[14]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif">Samuel Laeuchli, <u>Religion and Art in Conflict</u>, (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1980), 148.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn15"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref15" name="_ftn15" title=""><sup><sup>[15]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif">Barrie, <u>Spiritual Path, Sacred Place. Myth, Ritual, and Meaning in Architecture. </u>(Boston: Shambhala Publications, 1996), 67.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn16"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref16" name="_ftn16" title=""><sup><sup>[16]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif">Edward A. Sovik, <u>Architecture for Worship</u>, (Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing, 1973), 51.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn17"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref17" name="_ftn17" title=""><sup><sup>[17]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif">Lawlor, <u>The Temple in the House</u>, (New York: Putnam Books, 1994), 118.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn18"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref18" name="_ftn18" title=""><sup><sup>[18]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif">Barrie, <u>Spiritual Path, Sacred Place. Myth, Ritual, and Meaning in Architecture.</u>, 67.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn19"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref19" name="_ftn19" title=""><sup><sup>[19]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif">Ibid., 74.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn20"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref20" name="_ftn20" title=""><sup><sup>[20]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif">Neil Levine, <u>The Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright</u>. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), 141. </span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn21"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref21" name="_ftn21" title=""><sup><sup>[21]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif">Norris Kelly Smith, <u>Frank Lloyd Wright, A Study in Architectural Content</u>, (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice -Hall Inc., 1966), 69.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn22"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref22" name="_ftn22" title=""><sup><sup>[22]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif">Ibid., 69.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn23"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref23" name="_ftn23" title=""><sup><sup>[23]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif">Robert C. Twombly, <u>Frank Lloyd Wright</u>, (New York: Harper & Row, 1973),. 71.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn24"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref24" name="_ftn24" title=""><sup><sup>[24]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif">McCarter, ed., <u>On and By Frank Lloyd Wright. A Primer of Architectural Principles</u>, 317.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn25"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref25" name="_ftn25" title=""><sup><sup>[25]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif">Lawlor, <u>The Temple in the House</u>, (New York: Putnam Books, 1994), 135.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn26"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref26" name="_ftn26" title=""><sup><sup>[26]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif">Wright, <u>The Future of Architecture</u>, (New York: Bramhall House, 1953)</span><span face="Arial, sans-serif">, </span><span face="Arial, sans-serif"> 200.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn27"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref27" name="_ftn27" title=""><sup><sup>[27]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif">Peter Hammond, <u>Liturgy, and Architecture</u>, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961),. 28.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn28"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref28" name="_ftn28" title=""><sup><sup>[28]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif">Ibid., 155.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn29"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref29" name="_ftn29" title=""><sup><sup>[29]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif">Lindsay Jones, <u>Hermeneutics of Sacred Architecture, Experience, Interpretation, Comparison.</u> <u>Volume 2,</u> (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000), 208.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn30"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref30" name="_ftn30" title=""><sup><sup>[30]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif">Duffy, <u>The Place of Worship. Pastoral Directory on the Building and Reordering of Churches,</u> 12.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn31"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref31" name="_ftn31" title=""><sup><sup>[31]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif">Bernard Cooke, S.J. “Theology of the Liturgy,” <u>Church Architecture, The Shape of Reform</u>, (Washington: The Liturgical Conference, 1965), 11.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn32"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref32" name="_ftn32" title=""><sup><sup>[32]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif">Hammond, <u>Liturgy, and Architecture</u>, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961). 29.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn33"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref33" name="_ftn33" title=""><sup><sup>[33]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif">Darwin Martin papers. MS 22.8, Box 1, Folder 20. (University Archives, University at Buffalo).</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn34"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref34" name="_ftn34" title=""><sup><sup>[34]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif">Smith, <u>Frank Lloyd Wright, A Study in Architectural Content</u>, (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice - Hall Inc., 1966), 177.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn35"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref35" name="_ftn35" title=""><sup><sup>[35]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif">McCarter, ed., <u>On and By Frank Lloyd Wright. A Primer of Architectural Principles</u>, 12.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="ftn36"><p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref36" name="_ftn36" title=""><sup><sup>[36]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif">Duffy, <u>The Place of Worship. Pastoral Directory on the Building and Reordering of Churches,</u> 13.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div></div><p><a href="applewebdata://723D6298-7906-47E3-AA3C-5F6AC7550FC9#_ftnref37" name="_ftn37" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: 0in;" title=""><sup><sup>[37]</sup></sup></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="text-indent: 0in;">Frank Lloyd Wright, <u>An American Architecture</u>, (New York: Horizon, 1955), 18.</span> <span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="line-height: 13.8px; text-indent: 0in;"> </span></p></div></div></div>DLJhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14674534926004739081noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3330136066649493860.post-90752577019472333912023-03-13T12:32:00.011-07:002023-03-13T13:25:02.642-07:00 ALBERT PINKHAM RYDER’S DEATH ON A PALE HORSE<b>by <a href="mailto:james.ellis@alum.cardozo.yu.edu">James W. Ellis</a><br />Copyright ©2023. All rights reserved by the author.</b><p class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 22px; margin: 0in; text-align: left;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 22px; margin: 0in; text-align: left;"><a name="_Hlk126931446" style="font-size: 11pt; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;">Introduction</span></b></a></p>The artist Albert Pinkham Ryder (1847-1917) lived for five productive decades on Manhattan’s Lower West Side, during which time he became America’s most idiosyncratic painter of imaginative subjects (fig. 1). Late in life, Ryder reflected on his artistic journey and characterized himself as a seeker in search of something he might never find. He asked, “Have you ever seen an inchworm crawl up a leaf or twig and then, clinging to the very end, revolve in the air, feeling to reach something? That’s like me. I am trying to find something out there beyond the place on which I have a footing” (Ryder 1905, 10). Ryder tended to select subjects from music and literature, from Wagnerian operas, Shakespeare’s dramas, and the Bible, but he used these sources as jumping-off points. His most powerful and dramatic images place archetypical characters within mysterious, eloquently expressed settings accented by unsettling colors and unnatural lighting. Above anything else, Ryder relied on his own intuition and instincts; his themes were utterly transformed by inner visions and deliberations. Perhaps his most affecting single work is Death on a Pale Horse, which is also known as <i>The Race Track</i> (fig. 2).<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333336px; margin: 0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;"> </span></p><div align="center"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none;"><tbody><tr><td style="padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 450.8pt;" width="601"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333336px; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj8kGKrt2GVO9uarMQfR98DXWD2iNYJkDXIhbwTkFlkMHglIMD3y7PBdWb8eLjBdRLSmBZ3M1P0CWRryNxTxSWGwDB0W6atbxojPz1PWT90KJ_hkLAoTyiSsy70LQJP_QyYOGpFFWxriazhiYy-s9cIJHJ7wgjd5148E8HZq9fgu-lkEESNHYQA02v3Kg/s1306/Screenshot%202023-03-13%20at%203.52.42%20PM.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1306" data-original-width="1003" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj8kGKrt2GVO9uarMQfR98DXWD2iNYJkDXIhbwTkFlkMHglIMD3y7PBdWb8eLjBdRLSmBZ3M1P0CWRryNxTxSWGwDB0W6atbxojPz1PWT90KJ_hkLAoTyiSsy70LQJP_QyYOGpFFWxriazhiYy-s9cIJHJ7wgjd5148E8HZq9fgu-lkEESNHYQA02v3Kg/s320/Screenshot%202023-03-13%20at%203.52.42%20PM.png" width="246" /></a></div><br /><p></p></td></tr><tr><td style="padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 450.8pt;" valign="top" width="601"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Figure 1. Alice Boughton, <i>Albert Pinkham Ryder</i>. 1905. Photograph. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution. Public Domain. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></p><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></p></td></tr><tr><td style="padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 450.8pt;" width="601"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333336px; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi9JFPbFIB-1DSD3TkeF3hrx82xwfeJD1uzTGh3XQoG7uU4xpehUPYaRb3MoqRaYRawJY6tUVG_n5ILiSLMtHe9GFcRAs-9kUr14KuF7USowSdBYzs50sU4JeEqeO0XyJrSg4o0njb15Xhn_72XQFPDu_kRzdStx8eqT9EUJ9jm2Ns62O6WTjUkvtfyoQ/s1152/Screenshot%202023-03-13%20at%203.54.54%20PM.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="921" data-original-width="1152" height="256" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi9JFPbFIB-1DSD3TkeF3hrx82xwfeJD1uzTGh3XQoG7uU4xpehUPYaRb3MoqRaYRawJY6tUVG_n5ILiSLMtHe9GFcRAs-9kUr14KuF7USowSdBYzs50sU4JeEqeO0XyJrSg4o0njb15Xhn_72XQFPDu_kRzdStx8eqT9EUJ9jm2Ns62O6WTjUkvtfyoQ/s320/Screenshot%202023-03-13%20at%203.54.54%20PM.png" width="320" /></a></div><br /><br /><p></p></td></tr><tr><td style="padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 450.8pt;" valign="top" width="601"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Figure 2. Albert Pinkham Ryder, <a name="_Hlk127190439"></a><a name="_Hlk126931642"><i>Death on a Pale Horse (The Race Track</i>)</a>, ca. 1896–1908.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Oil on canvas; 28 x 35 in. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">The Cleveland Museum of Art. Public Domain.<o:p></o:p></span></p></td></tr></tbody></table></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333336px; margin: 0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;"> </span></p><br /><br /><b>The Artist</b><br /><br />Albert Pinkham Ryder descended from the early English settlers of the Plymouth Colony on Cape Cod, Massachusetts. During the 1630s, one of his ancestors left the colony to help found the town of Yarmouth, and by the mid-nineteenth century, the family had settled further inland to New Bedford, Massachusetts. This was where the future artist was born, on March 19, 1847, the youngest of four brothers. During the nineteenth century, the Ryder family was caught up in the revivalist spirit of the Protestant Great Awakenings, and they joined the American Methodist movement. The English clergymen John Wesley, his brother Charles Wesley, and George Whitefield helped establish the Methodist Revival in the southern colony of Georgia during the 1730s, which quickly spread up the Eastern Seaboard in the next decade, reaching New York, Boston, and all the principal cities and towns of New England by the mid-1740s (see Carwardine 1972). Albert’s grandparents and his parents, Alexander and Elizabeth (Cobb) Ryder, were devout Methodists. His grandmother, mother, and other women in his family even dressed in the “plain manner” more commonly associated with the Quakers and Amish (Sherman 1920, 12). The artist’s strict religious upbringing shaped his worldview and the subjects he chose to depict. <br /><br />Each of Albert Pinkham Ryder’s older brothers served in the military during the Civil War, and after the war was over, each brother relocated to New York City in search of economic opportunities. Albert and his parents soon followed, and by 1871 the whole family was reunited and living together again in Manhattan in a small house on West Thirty-fifth Street (Broun 1989, 18, 182). The artist’s father, Alexander Ryder, helped support the family by working in a variety of trades and even served as a church sexton in a local Methodist congregation. <br /><br />Albert Pinkham Ryder showed an artistic aptitude at an early age, and as soon as he arrived in New York, he began taking instruction in drawing from William Edgar Marshall (1837-1906). Marshall’s fame was based primarily on his engraved portraits of Presidents Abraham Lincoln and Ulysses S. Grant, and he accepted many students into his studio. After Ryder honed his skills for several months, he applied to The National Academy of Design and was accepted. For the following four years, Ryder took part in drawing courses at the Academy’s building on Park Avenue and Twenty-third Street, sketching plaster casts of famous ancient sculptures and producing studies of live models. Around the same time, he took his first trip to Europe but stayed only one month. He would return to Europe only twice, in 1887 and 1896, but both times he again quickly returned.<br /><br />Art historians and curators often mischaracterize Albert Pinkham Ryder as either somewhat naïve or as a wholly unique artist. This may be because as Ryder aged, he became more and more reclusive, living and working in seclusion, and his visual idiom grew more eccentric and visionary. In this progression, Ryder was similar to the innovative post-Impressionist Vincent van Gogh (1853-1890), Ryder’s near contemporary. Van Gogh has also been misunderstood as a mere oddity or as an outsider to the art world who preferred only to pursue his own muse and disregarded the work of others (see Bailey 2019). But, in fact, both van Gogh and Ryder were well acquainted with the history of European painting, and both were particularly impressed by the landscapes and genre scenes of the French Barbizon School (Homer 1961, 283; regarding Ryder’s other influences, see Evans 1986). Ryder was known to frequent The Metropolitan Museum of Art and leading galleries to see the paintings of Jean-François Millet (1814-1875), bucolic scenes infused with spiritual messages. Ryder also borrowed from the softly generalized forms, rough brushwork, and “dusky golden tonalities” of the Barbizon painter Théodore Rousseau (1812-1876) (Homer 1961, 283). However, while Ryder was a sophisticated art student, like van Gogh, he had an unusual disposition.<br /><br /> <br /><br /><b>An Odd Personality</b><br /><br />During the twelve years that Albert Pinkham Ryder worked on Death on a Pale Horse (The Race Track), he lived in a “row house” at 308 West Fifteenth Street, near Eighth Avenue, specifically in a cramped attic studio on the second floor at the rear of the building (Taylor 1984, 3). One of Ryder’s few close friends during this period was Charles Fitzpatrick, who lived at the adjacent row house. Fitzpatrick described 308 West Fifteenth Street as “an old-fashioned house … one of those peculiar houses that attract professional people of small means, most of the tenants [were] artists, sculptors, musicians, doctors, and newspaper men” (Fitzpatrick 1984, 8). <br /><br />Ryder took no interest in the condition of his tiny studio apartment. Fitzpatrick recalled the artist’s room was cluttered with “bags and barrels filled with paper, empty food boxes, ashes, old clothes, especially under-garments … all soiled and in a fearful condition, mice that had decayed in traps, food in pots that had been laid aside and covered with paper and forgotten” (Fitzpatrick 1984, 8). Ryder often appeared in public in a similar state of disrepair, his clothes disheveled and his rugged beard untrimmed. More than once, the city housing authority was called out to investigate the deplorable state of Ryder’s dwelling. When they did, the artist was found “sleeping on a rough cot” or puttering around in his overalls “with a pair of old leather slippers on his stockingless feet.” Outsiders might have viewed his studio as “the abode of dirt and disorder,” but Ryder himself, “the poet and dreamer, had a very different idea. ‘I have two windows [he explained, which] look out onto an old garden, [and] I would not exchange these two windows for a palace with less a vision than this garden with its whispering leafage – [it’s] nature’s gift to the least of her little ones’” (Sherman 1920, 19-20). <br /><br />Ryder placed a far higher value on his independence and individuality and his drive to document his intense inner imaginings than on material comforts. In a letter dated 1900, he wrote, “It is the first vision that counts. The artist has to remain true to his dream, and it will possess his work in such a manner that it will resemble the work of no other man – for no two visions are alike. Those who reach the heights have all toiled up the steep mountains by a different route. To each has been revealed a different panorama” (Homer and Goodrich 1989, 205). <br /><br />Completing a painting was rarely the artist’s primary goal; rather, working through an initial conception was his fascination. The abstract idea underlying a work meant more than its fulfillment (Soby and Miller, 35). Ryder was notorious for his frustratingly slow process and his “tortoise-like pace.” He labored over and over for as long as fifteen years on a single painting, developing a “neurotic attachment” that prevented patrons from taking works from his studio (Homer 1990, 86). The artist’s obsessivity was exacerbated by his poor eyesight, brought on by a childhood infection, which made prolonged visual concentration extremely difficult. In addition, Ryder suffered from various other ailments, including gout, kidney disease, insomnia, and a nervous disorder (perhaps “neurasthenia”), that impeded his progress (Ross 2003, 89-90). As a result, in a career lasting fifty years, Ryder’s entire oeuvre numbered just over one-hundred-fifty paintings.<br /><br /> <br /><br /><b>A Spiritual Muse</b><br /><br />Albert Pinkham Ryder undoubtedly had an eccentric personality and was withdrawn, but he was not simply unsociable. Ryder disregarded the state of his apartment and avoided the company of others largely because of an obsessive preoccupation with his work. As Ryder aged and became well-known, though, he attracted the attention of a younger generation of painters living and studying in New York. One of these younger painters was the prominent social realist Philip Evergood (1901-1973). Evergood’s parents were close acquaintances of Ryder’s next-door neighbors, Charles and Louise Fitzpatrick, and over time, Louise and Flora Evergood (Philip’s mother) became the best of friends. <br /><br />As a child, Philip Evergood often visited Ryder’s studio and “played among [his] canvases” with Fitzpatrick’s adopted daughter Mary (Taylor 1984, 2). Evergood expressed admiration for Ryder’s personal magnetism: “He drifted smoothly along, taking everybody, children, women, trees and sky as a matter of course. He would talk to strangers as though he had known them all his life, though he only had a few real friends (Evergood 1984, 6). On warm summer evenings, Ryder often accompanied Louise and Mary Fitzpatrick to church, preferring to sit outside “on the church steps waiting for them to come out” (Taylor 1984, 4). The church doors were kept open during the summer, and Ryder sat listening as Mary sang in the choir and at times, performed a solo (Fitzpatrick 1984, 13).<br /><br />The Fitzpatricks outlived Flora Evergood (and Albert Pinkham Ryder) by many years, but they continued their relationship with Philip Evergood until their own deaths. Charles Fitzpatrick often spoke with Philip Evergood about his artwork, but as Charles aged, his attitude changed. As he neared his own death, he grew more and more religious. Evergood was surprised when Fitzpatrick began voicing “gruffy disapproval of [his] work just before he died [in 1932]. He acted as though my paintings were obscene. … I was painting all imaginative compositions with nudes, and [Charles] used to preach to me to change my ways and to think of Ryder’s religious fervor [emphasis added]” (Evergood 1984, 5). Louise Fitzpatrick made similar suggestions. She encouraged Philip to go study Ryder’s pictures closely whenever he could, not to see the way he painted, but to “feel the mystic spirit of his soul” (Evergood 1984, 5). It seemed to Philip Evergood that Louise gradually transformed into “a kind of Saint whose fervor and love for humanity was completely tied up in her fervor and love of the master. She would speak of Ryder and Christ in the same breath” (Evergood 1984, 7). Because of Albert Pinkham Ryder’s reliance on (often religious) inspiration, and his prioritizing of subjectivity and individuality, he is often considered a latter-day Romantic.<br /><br />Romanticism was a wide-ranging artistic and cultural movement that swept across Europe in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. European Romantics shared a nostalgia for the past and were “interested in the mind as the site of mysterious and unexplained” phenomena (Adams 2002, 754). Chief European Romantics such as William Blake (1757-1827) and Eugène Delacroix (1798-1863) painted with a rich and religious imagination (see Polistena 2009). Romanticism arrived rather late in the United States, though, and American Romantics, such as many of the Hudson River School, often worked in isolation as bohemian artists (Kuspit 1963, 219). <br /><br />Most art historians agree Albert Pinkham Ryder was a Romantic, and many debate whether he also deserves the epithet “mystic” since he opted for a humble life of contemplation in order to attain a spiritual apprehension that lay beyond the intellect or human perception. Historian and psychoanalytical art critic Donald Kuspit dismissed this epithet, preferring to see Ryder’s “hyperbole of moodiness and passion” as characteristic of his unique “conception of expressiveness” (Kuspit 1963, 219). On the other hand, Columbia University Professor of Art Barbara Novak believed Ryder’s “entire oeuvre, religious or secular [was] an act of devotion”; he saw “all of nature within the purview of the Almighty” (Novak 1969; quoted in Dillenberger and Taylor 1972, 154). Lloyd Goodrich, the longtime Director of the Whitney Museum of American Art, concurred, calling Ryder “one of the few authentic religious painters of his period – in whom religion was not mere conformity, but deep personal emotion. The life of Christ moved him to some of his most tender and impressive works” (Goodrich, 1959; also quoted in Dillenberger and Taylor 1972, 154). <br /><br />The work that will now be examined, <i>Death on a Pale Horse</i> (The Race Track), offers a fascinating balance of Ryder’s competing passions, 1. his desire to visually realize his initial inspiration or conception, and 2. his desire to reach “beyond the place on which [he had] a footing,” to express a transcendent, spiritual concept.<br /><br /><br /><br /><b>The Inspiration</b><br /><br /> Albert Pinkham Ryder’s personality could scarcely have been more distinct from that of his older brother, William Davis Ryder (1837-1898) (Hotel Albert 2011). William was far more pragmatic and business-oriented. After serving in the Union Army during the Civil War, William came to New York City and opened a large and successful restaurant at Broadway and Howard Street. He then invested his earnings in the hotel business and became the manager of the Hotel Albert, located at 32 East Eleventh Street (fig. 3). On occasion, Albert stopped into the establishment to visit his brother and to take meals (fig. 4). On one of these occasions, he received his initial stimulus for <i>Death on a Pale Horse</i> (The Race Track), which he later recounted in detail:<div><br /></div><blockquote style="border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;">“As to how I came to paint ‘The Race Track’ – it was rather an inspirational matter. At this time my brother was the proprietor of the Hotel Albert and I frequently used to get my meals there and got acquainted with many of the waiters. I got acquainted with one, but I cannot recall his name, who was unusually intelligent and a proficient waiter and I sometimes used to chat with him. This was about the time the Dwyer brothers had their phenomenal success with their stable of race horses, as they won about all the important events throughout the country for over three or four years. In one of my talks with this waiter he mentioned this fact and that this was an easy way to make money. I, of course, told him that I did not consider it so, as there was always ‘many a slip between the cup and the lip,’ and advised him to be careful. Not long after this, in the month of May, the Brooklyn Handicap was run, and the Dwyer brothers had entered their celebrated horse, Hanover, to win the race. The day before the race I dropped into my brother’s hotel and had a little chat with this waiter, and he told me that he had saved up $500 [equivalent to around $15,000 today] and that he had placed every penny of it on Hanover winning this race. The next day the race was run, and as racegoers will probably remember, Hanover came in third. I was immediately reminded that my friend the waiter had lost all his money. That dwelt on my mind, as for some reason it impressed me very much, so much so that I went around to my brother’s hotel for breakfast the next morning, and was shocked to find my waiter friend had shot himself the evening before. This fact formed a cloud over my mind that I could not throw off, and ‘The Race Track’ is the result” (Sherman 1920, 46-48).<div><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333336px; margin: 0in 0.5in 0in 37.3pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;"> </span></p></div></blockquote><div><div align="center"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none;"><tbody><tr><td style="padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 237.4pt;" width="317"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333336px; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><b></b></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgobgPL4LmthwGmUeYsdAl0o8pA6PQt46zbqUIJa-vlBeSULhf94W-5cM1ExQuSPIzsvwwWdRQLiWlnsOSOrET00ZL4XrjF1jOAzWQxJrGIdsYPjz5QkNfkssC6G9o87st2SAFbZYSfJru3MM8pF6B48ZaOjXXykv6kLWldG6AUekpFHNbTpd6Um-jUKg/s1375/Untitled-1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1375" data-original-width="1110" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgobgPL4LmthwGmUeYsdAl0o8pA6PQt46zbqUIJa-vlBeSULhf94W-5cM1ExQuSPIzsvwwWdRQLiWlnsOSOrET00ZL4XrjF1jOAzWQxJrGIdsYPjz5QkNfkssC6G9o87st2SAFbZYSfJru3MM8pF6B48ZaOjXXykv6kLWldG6AUekpFHNbTpd6Um-jUKg/s320/Untitled-1.jpg" width="258" /></a></b></div><p></p></td><td style="padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 249.9pt;" width="333"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333336px; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><b></b></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSa5lhb_eC8lT1t4R3lPf3liN15_unqu9ob07qplaGixX6VCmTIrcZ6g0lSW9mCYorm7GebrkLLPvIsBxDz2ZVhV__cdRvOlyLBbuPrbt0REujWWe8AR6mmx-PND_v9lRFRRZY13hY3TaezO_ELTooE4t2RrbMDK0tdGJ_ACGuPwHUod3mFSCVI3_jbQ/s1804/Screenshot-2023-03-13-at-3.57.10-PM.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1373" data-original-width="1804" height="244" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSa5lhb_eC8lT1t4R3lPf3liN15_unqu9ob07qplaGixX6VCmTIrcZ6g0lSW9mCYorm7GebrkLLPvIsBxDz2ZVhV__cdRvOlyLBbuPrbt0REujWWe8AR6mmx-PND_v9lRFRRZY13hY3TaezO_ELTooE4t2RrbMDK0tdGJ_ACGuPwHUod3mFSCVI3_jbQ/s320/Screenshot-2023-03-13-at-3.57.10-PM.jpg" width="320" /></a></b></div><p></p></td></tr><tr><td style="padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 237.4pt;" valign="top" width="317"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333336px; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;">Figure 3. Hotel Albert, ca. 1907.<o:p></o:p></span></p></td><td style="padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 249.9pt;" valign="top" width="333"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Figure 4. Hotel Albert dining room, ca. 1907.<o:p></o:p></span></p></td></tr><tr><td style="padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 237.4pt;" width="317"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhqbWzdu0bkTeT-8jVBt4IgbbE1LnZOm4AqCKbMCpLmjOKaXXutMk0Yt1X35vvir35wdsZX7vN7cf0qujxxB5ldY5SzmARvsmL0EKCFc0FPYuZX1Gx6qUjC2w6LgCeDaDOH2dplsm1Gv_V3T-YAiz0fOG6XhFFph1pBgejogO1PNGzZfNL8hMG4LEY9DA/s1388/horse.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="866" data-original-width="1388" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhqbWzdu0bkTeT-8jVBt4IgbbE1LnZOm4AqCKbMCpLmjOKaXXutMk0Yt1X35vvir35wdsZX7vN7cf0qujxxB5ldY5SzmARvsmL0EKCFc0FPYuZX1Gx6qUjC2w6LgCeDaDOH2dplsm1Gv_V3T-YAiz0fOG6XhFFph1pBgejogO1PNGzZfNL8hMG4LEY9DA/s320/horse.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><br /><p></p></td><td style="padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 249.9pt;" width="333"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333336px; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj0yguEj9p22mPE9TYR-NaQ2HiwkiogcfXlKBKAgQEi1PLQaMrmPjBc75mr8mas3HvBBN8VuEu1dZioiijh8kY2izUkGB_YdLJgpczVQqXSEiu9ENoXsLp6t_oN1vDsEkK-7u5Bi5ggaWLLgR9d8mh9Dxyw9vcntKKo-HRbv5g-8RJqGJvLA7Pj5Ule0Q/s1386/Screenshot-2023-03-13-at-4.03.30-PM.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="854" data-original-width="1386" height="197" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj0yguEj9p22mPE9TYR-NaQ2HiwkiogcfXlKBKAgQEi1PLQaMrmPjBc75mr8mas3HvBBN8VuEu1dZioiijh8kY2izUkGB_YdLJgpczVQqXSEiu9ENoXsLp6t_oN1vDsEkK-7u5Bi5ggaWLLgR9d8mh9Dxyw9vcntKKo-HRbv5g-8RJqGJvLA7Pj5Ule0Q/s320/Screenshot-2023-03-13-at-4.03.30-PM.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><br /><p></p></td></tr><tr><td style="padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 237.4pt;" valign="top" width="317"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Figure 5. Hanover, ca. 1887.<o:p></o:p></span></p></td><td style="padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 249.9pt;" valign="top" width="333"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Figure 6. Monmouth Park, Eatontown, NJ, 1880.<o:p></o:p></span></p></td></tr></tbody></table></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333336px; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;"> </span></p><br /><br />The Dwyer Brothers Stable was a successful thoroughbred racing team owned and operated by the brothers Philip Dwyer (1844-1917) and Michael Dwyer (1847-1906) (see Barnes and Wright 2018). The Dwyer brothers earned their fortunes in the Brooklyn meat packing industry and then founded their extremely successful horse racing operation in 1876. Over the next fifteen years, Dwyer horses won five Travers Stakes, five Belmont Stakes, two Kentucky Derbies, and a Preakness Stakes. They maintained a stable that included several U.S. Champions, but their most famous racer was Hanover, the American “Horse of the Year” in 1887 (fig. 5). <br /><br />Hanover won his first seventeen races, his greatest triumph coming at the Belmont Stakes, held in June 1887 at the Jerome Park Racetrack in The Bronx. He won the Belmont by an amazing 15 lengths. Because of this great victory, Hanover was an overwhelming favorite to win the inaugural Brooklyn Derby (or “Brooklyn Handicap”), held in July 1887 at the (now-defunct) Gravesend Race Track near the Coney Island amusement parks. And, in spite of Ryder’s apparently foggy recollection quoted above, Hanover did, in fact, win the Brooklyn Handicap in 1887. It was an incredible year for the steed, a year in which Hanover started twenty-seven races, won twenty times, finished second five times, finished third only once, and finished completely “out of the money” also only once (National Museum of Racing 2023). The only time Hanover finished worse than third in 1887 was at the Omnibus Stakes, held in late July at Monmouth Park in Eatontown, New Jersey (American Classic Pedigrees 2023) (fig. 6). <br /><br />A bettor who makes a “win wager” receives a large “payout” if their chosen horse wins the race. Since this is a risky bet, it has a high payout. A bettor who makes a “place wager” receives a payout if their chosen horse finishes either first or second. A bettor who makes a “show wager” receives a payout if their chosen horse comes in either first, second, or third. Hanover’s remarkable winning percentage in 1887 (74%) led Ryder’s waiter friend to believe the horse was basically a “sure thing” to win, so he placed a very chancy “win wager” on Hanover, apparently, at the Omnibus Stakes. And when Hanover came in third, he, unfortunately, received no payout whatsoever. A safer show wager would have resulted in at least a small payout, and presumably, Ryder’s friend would not have taken his own life.<br /><br /> <br /><b><br />The Concept</b><br /><br />Like many Romantic painters, Albert Pinkham Ryder was stimulated by famous literary sources, from Chaucer’s <i>Canterbury Tales</i> (see Constance, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston), to Coleridge’s “Rime of the Ancient Mariner” (see <i>With Sloping Mast and Dipping Prow</i>, Smithsonian American Art Museum), to the vivid texts of the Bible (Homer 1961, 280). Exhibitions often juxtapose Ryder’s paintings with explanatory labels quoting such texts, shining a light on his work’s deepest meanings. Unlike some other Romantic artists, though, Ryder did not merely illustrate literary sources; rather, he created “pictorial dramas” encouraged by transcendent themes, translating them into something purely visual and “purely individual” (Goodrich 1949). This holds true for <i>Death on a Pale Horse</i>.<br /><br />Ryder suggested the suicide of his waiter friend motivated him to paint <i>Death on a Pale Horse</i>. However, the suicide occurred in 1888, and he did not begin his painting until eight years later (ca. 1896); he then labored over it for another dozen more years (until 1908). This is a prime example of his “tortoise-like pace.” Significantly, when Ryder worked on the painting, his closest family members died in succession: his mother in 1893; his brother William in 1898; and, finally, in 1900, his father passed away following a long illness. In these years, it may have seemed to the artist that, sadly, death was continually galloping through his life. In 1928, the director of the Cleveland Museum of Art, William Milliken, proposed that in the Cleveland painting, Ryder “deals with the eternal problem of death, not in any mood of morbid curiosity, but instead with an inevitability,” which is characteristic of the subject matter itself (Milliken 1928, 65).<br /><br />Ryder believed he suffered from a nervous condition, what today we would call an anxiety disorder, and this condition was undoubtedly exacerbated by losing his dearest family members. After his mother died, he sought support from one of his patrons, a therapist named Dr. Albert T. Sanden. Between 1895 and 1915, Dr. Sanden treated the artist at his New York City apartment and at Sanden’s upstate country home and dairy farm in Goshen, New York (Ross 2003, 86). The two men eventually became good friends and continued an active correspondence until shortly before the artist’s death. In 1907, Ryder wrote to Sanden, “There is no one in the world I feel more comfortable with than [yourself]” (Ross 2003, 91-92). At the same time Ryder was receiving treatment for his nervousness, he apparently also sought solace by reading Bible passages, specifically the sixth chapter of the book of Revelation, which is also known as “The Apocalypse.” <br /><br /></div><blockquote style="border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px;"><div style="text-align: left;">The Apocalypse contains some of the Bible’s most awe-inspiring figurative prose, and none of its passages is more memorable than the account of “The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse,” who, the text says, will be sent to deal with humanity on God’s behalf at the end of the ages. The author of the Apocalypse revealed this vision:“I heard, as it were the noise of thunder, [and] one of the four beasts saying, ‘Come and see.’ And I saw, and behold a white horse: and he that sat on him had a bow; and a crown was given unto him: and he went forth conquering, and to conquer. And … I heard the second beast say, ‘Come and see.’ And there went out another horse that was red: and power was given to him that sat thereon to take peace from the earth, and that they should kill one another: and there was given unto him a great sword. And … I heard the third beast say, ‘Come and see.’ And I beheld, and lo a black horse; and he that sat on him had a pair of balances in his hand. And I heard a voice in the midst of the four beasts say, ‘A measure of wheat for a penny, and three measures of barley for a penny; and see thou hurt not the oil and the wine.’ And … I heard the voice of the fourth beast say, ‘Come and see.’ And I looked, and behold a pale horse: and his name that sat on him was Death, and Hell followed with him [emphasis added]. And power was given unto them over the fourth part of the earth, to kill with sword, and with hunger, and with death, and with the beasts of the earth” (Revelation 6:1-8 KJV).</div></blockquote><p> </p><div>One of Ryder’s artistic heroes, the American painter Washington Allston (1779-1843), said for Romantic and visionary artists, it was “impossible to conceive anything more terrible than Death on the white horse” or the three other horsemen of the Apocalypse (quoted in Flagg 1892, 43-44). <br /><br />Many Romantic artists attempted to envisage and portray the highly symbolic passage, but few, if any, equaled the original text’s blend of simplistic language and fantastic description, nor its palpable sense of sublime terror (see Considine 1944). The Anglo-Irish philosopher Edmund Burke (1729-1797), who anticipated the Romantic movement, defined “the sublime” as an artistic effect that produces the strongest emotions; whatever “operates in a manner analogous to terror, is a source of the sublime” (Burke 1757, 58). Perhaps the two visual artists who most closely captured the terror of the Apocalypse’s text were the German Renaissance painter and printmaker Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528) and Albert Pinkham Ryder.<br /><br />In Dürer’s woodcut print entitled “The Four Horsemen,” of 1498, he attempted to hold faithfully to the biblical text (fig. 7). Dürer’s first three riders go forth with power, spreading war, plagues, and famine. Below is the fourth rider, Death, a withered old man with a long white beard, hollow eyes, and a gaping mouth (fig. 8). The emaciated rider sits atop a similarly emaciated horse with a pitifully exposed ribcage, who tramples indiscriminately over humanity. Death wields a trident, which he employs to fling bodies into the jaws of a ravenous Hellmouth. His unfortunate victims include a shrieking peasant, a common housewife, a dandified merchant, a horrified burgher, and a tonsured priest. The gruesome harvest includes the poor and the rich, the mighty and the humble (see related biblical passages Ecclesiastes 9:5; Hebrews 9:27). Dürer borrowed from the medieval literary and pictorial allegory known as the Dance of Death or Danse Macabre, in which Death was symbolized as a dancing skeleton who merrily leads a cross-section of society toward the grave (see Eisler, 1948) (fig. 10). <p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333336px; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;"> </span></p><div align="center"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none;"><tbody><tr><td style="padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 225.4pt;" width="301"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333336px; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh5yYhkyo0oxCTMMSqiGmTWqawvmNBG803xYMd1OzgFHq-5XBm7MqbgWn0j3dw21feQf1M3cswMPyQlYT6GAPOtLVF2_LzhyTErM2e61iuMUkleer-WNYE1q4AQlr6e38pav0VEgIlRnYKpHIWPH1i6P30bPUvmvxJEsCblY9TKyF-KI8JhBcYHz-DPqQ/s2904/Screenshot-2023-03-13-at-4.06.48-PM.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1384" data-original-width="2904" height="279" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh5yYhkyo0oxCTMMSqiGmTWqawvmNBG803xYMd1OzgFHq-5XBm7MqbgWn0j3dw21feQf1M3cswMPyQlYT6GAPOtLVF2_LzhyTErM2e61iuMUkleer-WNYE1q4AQlr6e38pav0VEgIlRnYKpHIWPH1i6P30bPUvmvxJEsCblY9TKyF-KI8JhBcYHz-DPqQ/w584-h279/Screenshot-2023-03-13-at-4.06.48-PM.jpg" width="584" /></a></div><br /><p></p></td><td style="padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 225.4pt;" width="301"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333336px; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;"><o:p></o:p></span></p></td></tr><tr><td style="padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 225.4pt;" valign="top" width="301"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Figure 7 and 8 Albrecht Dürer, <i>The Four Horsemen</i>, 1498. </span></p><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Right DETA</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">IL</span></p><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Public Domain.<i></i><o:p></o:p></span></p></td><td style="padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 225.4pt;" valign="top" width="301"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333336px; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><br /></p></td></tr></tbody></table></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333336px; margin: 0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><br /><br />Albert Pinkham Ryder departed from Renaissance (and medieval) iconographic conventions by separating the figure of Death from the other horsemen, which suggests Ryder’s true intention. His image is more a meditation on a theme than an illustration of a biblical text. Ryder also placed Death at the center of his composition, and, instead of representing an aged and ailing man, Ryder’s Death more closely resembles the skeleton of a Danse Macabre or illustrations of the personification of death known as “the Grim Reaper” (figs. 9-11). To underscore the latter association, the artist took away Death’s traditional trident (fig. 8) and gave him the Grim Reaper’s preferred harvesting tool, a scythe (fig. 11).<br /><br /> <div align="center"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none;"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" style="padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 3.15in;" width="302"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333336px; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><a name="_Hlk127357647"></a></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj2WUXDgtWctQa61wnpkVXJi5VsA9N-HpfXKelzGNtF7D_1_1LBECaa2B3wdt6LWVql39SORqR4dfMtjwk7VwjjGbYM3ctu-rZ-nTfCgVl-_COXxh5HrHd-93M1ZGMrIKRWnjWgSH00MUAU3QSnTJibzeXFKArp1dzGMQCSlcPsC3KzUahfF5lL4WjB3A/s1425/Screenshot-2023-03-13-at-4.09.42-PM.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1121" data-original-width="1425" height="252" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj2WUXDgtWctQa61wnpkVXJi5VsA9N-HpfXKelzGNtF7D_1_1LBECaa2B3wdt6LWVql39SORqR4dfMtjwk7VwjjGbYM3ctu-rZ-nTfCgVl-_COXxh5HrHd-93M1ZGMrIKRWnjWgSH00MUAU3QSnTJibzeXFKArp1dzGMQCSlcPsC3KzUahfF5lL4WjB3A/s320/Screenshot-2023-03-13-at-4.09.42-PM.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><p></p></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 3.15in;" valign="top" width="302"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333336px; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;">Figure 9. Detail of fig. 2.<o:p></o:p></span></p></td></tr><tr><td style="padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 113.4pt;" width="151"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333336px; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><br /><br /></p></td><td style="padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 113.4pt;" width="151"><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjstCaizlac9EybN1tb7wH5WvBdv_DwWhqxwyWXErxlPxBK6wsOzQCvnnMw-krgV_BA2p9tUjx0rw7SIoozgqDrs0_dJciLlcqkEue6XeqYPegA38-HX9pQv5us8bNiaPW4wXlZeYELQvs1tU7XEw_gShQQuYQCyBU4fVgYsSTJHO9XCI1K1s2fZvU_Sg/s1976/Screenshot-2023-03-13-at-4.11.07-PM.jpg"><img border="0" height="363" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjstCaizlac9EybN1tb7wH5WvBdv_DwWhqxwyWXErxlPxBK6wsOzQCvnnMw-krgV_BA2p9tUjx0rw7SIoozgqDrs0_dJciLlcqkEue6XeqYPegA38-HX9pQv5us8bNiaPW4wXlZeYELQvs1tU7XEw_gShQQuYQCyBU4fVgYsSTJHO9XCI1K1s2fZvU_Sg/w640-h363/Screenshot-2023-03-13-at-4.11.07-PM.jpg" width="640" /></a><br /><br /><br />Figure 10. Swiss engraving of Death Dancing with a Cook. Public Domain. <br /><br />Figure 11. French illustration of the Grim Reaper. Public Domain.<br /><br /><br /></td></tr></tbody></table></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333336px; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;"> </span></p>From the Middle Ages onward, European and American artists almost invariably presented the Death figure of the biblical Apocalypse as still living, though just barely. He will bring death to humanity but is not quite dead himself. The only major exception to this convention predating Ryder’s image was a drawing by the English painter John Hamilton Mortimer (1740-1779). Mortimer’s drawing has been lost but is nonetheless known by an etched copy circulated by another artist in 1775 (fig. 12). One art historian described Mortimer’s scene as a “horrible imagining,” a prime example of a “conspicuous current of ‘Gothic’ terror which first emerged in British art in the 1770’s” (Ziff 1970, 529). Ryder seems to have been aware of the widely-circulated etching. As Ryder would do a century later, Mortimer conceived of Death as an isolated skeletal horseman. Mortimer also used a dark, threatening sky as a foreboding backdrop to intensify his drama. Ryder’s setting is similar. William Milliken saw echoes of Ryder’s ghostly horseman in the “livid clouds” and “weird patches of deep blue” of his ghostly sky (Milliken 1928, 71). Mortimer’s disturbing drawing inspired later artists of various inclinations, including Benjamin West, William Blake, and the poet Charles Baudelaire (Ziff 1970, 532), and perhaps now, Albert Pinkham Ryder should be added to this illustrious list.<p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333336px; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;"> </span></p><div align="center"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none;"><tbody><tr><td style="padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 225.4pt;" width="301"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333336px; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgVO9swOJYf5et7iOGvZ9OanvayNJb2j9LxCVfjMR9szp8k_QM2OfxfLq3JLqVA3X_Z-oCkz4rnIIaW2tBl3lbNbveBnajMv7EgNHsTSJGX0x29wVMMelXXezzvy20EfNYfnLmcemWKyCS6vrvlkdE8zxt7b5VNrKjZ45kgPe5MOMZPkIIgJDq3gUowAg/s1440/Screenshot-2023-03-13-at-4.15.35-PM.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1440" data-original-width="1095" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgVO9swOJYf5et7iOGvZ9OanvayNJb2j9LxCVfjMR9szp8k_QM2OfxfLq3JLqVA3X_Z-oCkz4rnIIaW2tBl3lbNbveBnajMv7EgNHsTSJGX0x29wVMMelXXezzvy20EfNYfnLmcemWKyCS6vrvlkdE8zxt7b5VNrKjZ45kgPe5MOMZPkIIgJDq3gUowAg/s320/Screenshot-2023-03-13-at-4.15.35-PM.jpg" width="243" /></a></div><br /><p></p></td></tr><tr><td style="padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 225.4pt;" valign="top" width="301"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Figure 12. An etched copy of John Mortimer’s <i>Death on a Pale Horse</i>, 1775. Public Domain.<o:p></o:p></span></p></td></tr></tbody></table></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333336px; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;"> </span></p>Ryder made other interesting iconographic choices. The author of the biblical Apocalypse wrote, “I looked, and behold a pale horse: and the name that sat on him was Death, and Hell followed with him” (Revelation 6:8). Although ostensibly, Ryder distilled this passage to its absolute essentials, he did not forget to include Hell. The biblical term transliterated as “Hell” or “Hades” from an original Greek term (ᾅδης) is an equivalent of the Hebrew term Sheol(שְׁאוֹל), the dark realm of the dead inhabited by disembodied spirits. The Hell accompanying Death on a Pale Horse is often represented as a mysterious, quasi-mythological beast, such as Dürer’s Hellmouth or Mortimer’s dragon-like creature (figs. 8, 12). Ryder decided on a snake, specifically a hooded cobra, a species that is not indigenous to North America but ranges widely across Asia and Africa (fig. 13). It seems, though, that Ryder did not intend to associate Hell with a place but to associate Hell with evil or temptation, particularly with the uncontrolled desire for money, or greed. To make this connection, it is necessary to go back and reconsider how the artist described his initial inspiration.<p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333336px; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;"> </span></p><div align="center"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none;"><tbody><tr><td style="padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 225.4pt;" width="301"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333336px; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhLadi6gqO4tVEw2LASAfBoz7YNOyO5yk3Bp6_cI9gXl5E9Z1LnOHoTE0eFVvdftWIGJPYH1cOAw6E4TUuH-H_QcO3neiEPOna7MY6iE0fsw0TDeE7CrbQPRlw15LYNjAZ7G3UFfrqbm1i_xjFgOmWiZW0HehFPDUyD_Ar2by4rldmT5O5bjWhZO8qSw/s1519/Screenshot-2023-03-13-at-4.16.42-PM.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="984" data-original-width="1519" height="207" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhLadi6gqO4tVEw2LASAfBoz7YNOyO5yk3Bp6_cI9gXl5E9Z1LnOHoTE0eFVvdftWIGJPYH1cOAw6E4TUuH-H_QcO3neiEPOna7MY6iE0fsw0TDeE7CrbQPRlw15LYNjAZ7G3UFfrqbm1i_xjFgOmWiZW0HehFPDUyD_Ar2by4rldmT5O5bjWhZO8qSw/s320/Screenshot-2023-03-13-at-4.16.42-PM.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><p></p></td></tr><tr><td style="padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 225.4pt;" valign="top" width="301"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333336px; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;">Figure 13. Detail of fig. 2.<o:p></o:p></span></p></td></tr></tbody></table></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333336px; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;"> </span></p><br />Ryder said when he was speaking with his ill-fated friend at the Albert Hotel, the waiter brought up the racehorse Hanover’s impressive record and his belief that betting on the horse offered “an easy way to make money.” Ryder gave an intriguing response: “I, of course, told him that I did not consider it so, as there was always ‘many a slip between the cup and the lip’ [emphasis added], and advised him to be careful.” The artist referenced an ancient proverb originally attributed to the third century B.C. Greek poet Lycophron, but often repeated in European and English literature, including in Charles Dickens’s last completed novel, <i>Our Mutual Friend</i> (see Hecimovich 1995). The proverb’s perceived truth is that even though a prospect may appear very promising, a person should not be overconfident about future success. A related idiomatic expression is “Don’t count your chickens before they hatch.” <br /><br />Albert Pinkham Ryder was a spiritually minded person, and he may have found his inspiration from a similar biblical passage: “Man proposes, but God disposes” (Proverbs 19:21 TLB). Ryder advised his friend to recognize the role of uncontrollable destiny in his life and to not be unduly tempted by the lure of easy money. The snake Ryder included in his painting brings to mind the biblical book of Genesis, which describes how a “serpent” (or “snake” [נָחַשׁ]) tempted Adam and Eve to eat forbidden fruit growing in the garden of Eden and that as a result of giving into their temptations, they died (Genesis 3:1-19). Perhaps Ryder saw parallels in his friend’s story. He succumbed to the lure of temptation and, as a result, was gathered up by<i> Death on a Pale Horse</i>. <br /><br />Another element that merits attention in Ryder’s painting and is an element that is easily overlooked but is still ripe with symbolic meaning: namely, the way the artist attended to movement. Surprisingly, Ryder makes the pale horse his most active element. The author of the Apocalypse used the Greek term chlōros (χλωρός) to describe the horse’s color. The term does not denote simply a paleness but specifically signifies the insipid yellowish-green tint that characterizes cadavers and other decaying life forms (see Mark 6:39). Like his deathly rider, the horse is beginning to rot and putrefy and turn yellowish-green. Although Ryder painted his horse with this sickening hue (fig. 9), he also flouted expectations by depicting a surprisingly healthy and active animal. Indeed, Ryder’s horse more closely resembles Hanover than Dürer’s sickly steed (figs. 5, 8).<br /><br />In the sinister contest Ryder portrays, Death and his speedy mount are the sole competitors; at the end of this race, the race of life, the “phantom rider,” and his “phantom horse” will inevitably win (Milliken 1928, 71). The horse gallops at a furious pace without caution. The Cleveland Museum of Art’s conservation department conducted an x-ray analysis of Ryder’s painting, which revealed the artist originally placed the animal’s hoofs under its body in the natural pose of a running horse, but later decided to splay the legs unnaturally (see Muybridge 1979, xv-xix). He apparently did this to emphasize the horse’s speed (Cole, 2023). There is another peculiarity: Ryder’s horse races clockwise around the track. This goes against the norm in the United States, where horses traditionally race counterclockwise. The Cleveland Museum of Art’s American Paintings Curator has speculated that Ryder intended to convey the message that in the natural progression of each person’s life, death is always riding toward us in the opposite direction, and as time passes, the distance between us and our demise gets smaller and smaller (Cole 2023).<br /><br />The message that death is inevitable is underscored by the last remaining iconographic feature: the rotting tree on the right side of Ryder’s composition (fig. 14). The remains of the tree are fixed and stationary, in contrast to the racing horse but bloom with symbolism. Ryder was arguably America’s last great Romantic landscape artist, and his art was partly indebted to New York State’s Hudson River School, a group of Romantic landscape painters known for infusing nature with allegorical spirituality (Kelly 1989, 174). For example, the Hudson River School painter Frederic Edwin Church (1826-1900) often used a tree that had been blasted and destroyed by lightening as “a substitute for a human being [and] as a potent metaphor for the endless cycle of life and death” (Ellis 2019, 4) (fig. 15). If Ryder intended to portray Death and his pale horse setting off at the beginning of their race, then it was surely no accident that he placed a lifeless tree at their finish line.<p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333336px; margin: 0in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;"> </span></p><div align="center"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none;"><tbody><tr><td style="padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 211.5pt;" width="282"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333336px; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjz4PMUYNUfe4_NCjHYTZ07LL_sfi46NhtpZ-YmcI_kq7kZ7KLfkFCSWb0G7H18fycbtzw0BvaFfLyYyA2bHOZnOoRCt10PWq9ZGaNbpLkn05_CMjFNBi8ZfUPSit_st-Z6OgvlWt_-fHSEvJVPwO64k2PYQiw9XJM1AecYUiVuHig1s10PqqR0F9MBKg/s1527/Untitled-1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1527" data-original-width="948" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjz4PMUYNUfe4_NCjHYTZ07LL_sfi46NhtpZ-YmcI_kq7kZ7KLfkFCSWb0G7H18fycbtzw0BvaFfLyYyA2bHOZnOoRCt10PWq9ZGaNbpLkn05_CMjFNBi8ZfUPSit_st-Z6OgvlWt_-fHSEvJVPwO64k2PYQiw9XJM1AecYUiVuHig1s10PqqR0F9MBKg/s320/Untitled-1.jpg" width="199" /></a></div><br /><br /><p></p></td><td style="padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 239.8pt;" width="320"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333336px; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhuiHFixMO_gJ5nh9gjpmrCbJ5lWPW4R16m5PkUX1IflsDnQi6sDuNtG4iSD7Bixj8iJmCsdv8OEmn4e6hOfHG_lVtRuImnOZeZ5Tjqaruc_i4-EM859lLzZzKF555WkGjU83_ZkyfJzbmpEzz06_lvh-R1j0nzZ_th3-gJAGGlarfZC74jhzXF2rfOFQ/s1535/Screenshot-2023-03-13-at-4.18.19-PM.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1535" data-original-width="1270" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhuiHFixMO_gJ5nh9gjpmrCbJ5lWPW4R16m5PkUX1IflsDnQi6sDuNtG4iSD7Bixj8iJmCsdv8OEmn4e6hOfHG_lVtRuImnOZeZ5Tjqaruc_i4-EM859lLzZzKF555WkGjU83_ZkyfJzbmpEzz06_lvh-R1j0nzZ_th3-gJAGGlarfZC74jhzXF2rfOFQ/s320/Screenshot-2023-03-13-at-4.18.19-PM.jpg" width="265" /></a></div><br /><br /><p></p></td></tr><tr><td style="padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 211.5pt;" valign="top" width="282"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Figure 14. Detail of fig. 2 <o:p></o:p></span></p><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p></td><td style="padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 239.8pt;" valign="top" width="320"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Figure 15. Frederic Church, <i>Storm in the Mountains</i>, 1847. Public Domain.<o:p></o:p></span></p></td></tr></tbody></table></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333336px; margin: 0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;"> </span></p><br /><br /><b>Aftermath and Conclusion</b><br /><br />As Albert Pinkham Ryder aged, he seemed to dwell more and more on death and on his own demise. This may help explain why he chose to live modestly and was obsessed with his artistic legacy. Late in life, he told a visitor to his studio, “The artist needs but a roof, a crust of bread and his easel, and all the rest God gives him in abundance” (Ryder 1905, 10-11). However, even though Ryder lived without physical comforts, this was by choice, not by necessity. During his lifetime, many of Ryder’s pictures sold for in excess of a thousand dollars, and he had “ready buyers for his works even before they were far along on the easel, [and] even if he lacked the ability to bring them to completion” (Broun 1989, 138). In fact, his most financially rewarding work turned out to be <i>Death on a Pale Horse</i>. The artist’s friend (and occasional dealer), Charles Fitzpatrick, left this account:</div><div><br /></div><blockquote style="border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px;"><div style="text-align: left;">[Around 1910] I had an office on Broadway. [A collector] who was gathering quite a few of [Ryder’s] pictures had one on the next block. We would meet occasionally, and he would ask me how the old man was, if he was working, etc. … [At one of our meetings] I told him a man from Brooklyn called quite a few times lately who was interested in the Race Track picture. He immediately became interested (I noticed this) and asked how much Ryder was asking for it. I told him I thought seven thousand dollars, and the man was coming in a few days to close the deal. The collector was down in a few days and closed with Ryder for seven thousand five hundred dollars. … The collector was a good sport and had plenty of money … [he] was placing his money on the future market” (Fitzpatrick 1984, 11).</div></blockquote><p> </p><div>The man Fitzpatrick referred to was the Brooklyn art collector and publisher Louis A. Lehmaier, who, at the beginning of the twentieth century, amassed one of the finest collections of American Romantic and Tonalist paintings. According to the provenance records at the Cleveland Museum of Art, at some point before 1913, Lehmaier returned Death on a Pale Horse to Ryder’s studio, perhaps so the artist could make some final touches, and then it reached the hands of Ryder’s friend and therapist, Dr. Albert T. Sanden. <br /><br />Around the same time, the house in which Ryder lived on Fifteenth Street was closed for remodeling, and he moved a block away to a two-room flat on Sixteenth Street. His health quickly declined, and he was taken to Saint Vincent’s Hospital in Greenwich Village for four months. When he was finally released, Ryder was frail and had nowhere to go, so his friends, the Fitzpatrick’s offered to take him in at their new home in Elmhurst, on Long Island (fig. 16). He lived there in seclusion for a little over a year, when he finally passed away March 29, 1917, a week after his seventieth birthday. In the end, Death and his pale horse finally, inevitably, caught up to Albert Pinkham Ryder as well. <br /><br /> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; color: black;"><tbody><tr><td style="padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 486.8pt;" width="649"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333336px; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgq2mGHvjYP7FFeqGz_M8PzSpx7kYUX4I2aJtyAG7pwWqQBOXevCGY_X_67F0EVRySfS6nDX-VXE2bL5id3ZFJivF5mmIj2iNwMdZQZ0tRzYijEToTSpNqay0IvcdHTpHm4WSLDbr2QZil4o5DSIMgo7J4mOhdr8twkOatwkq4KjGYykdhR1jqQTT28-w/s1562/Screenshot-2023-03-13-at-4.20.55-PM.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1277" data-original-width="1562" height="262" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgq2mGHvjYP7FFeqGz_M8PzSpx7kYUX4I2aJtyAG7pwWqQBOXevCGY_X_67F0EVRySfS6nDX-VXE2bL5id3ZFJivF5mmIj2iNwMdZQZ0tRzYijEToTSpNqay0IvcdHTpHm4WSLDbr2QZil4o5DSIMgo7J4mOhdr8twkOatwkq4KjGYykdhR1jqQTT28-w/s320/Screenshot-2023-03-13-at-4.20.55-PM.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><br /><p></p></td></tr><tr><td style="padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 486.8pt;" valign="top" width="649"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Figure 16. The house where Ryder died <o:p></o:p></span></p><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">9103 50<sup>th</sup> Avenue, Elmhurst, New York, 2023.</span></p><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><span class="MyAppHighlight" face="Helvetica, sans-serif" style="background-color: khaki; display: inline-block; font-size: 14px; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span></p></td></tr></tbody></table><br /><br /><br /><b>About the author: James W. Ellis, PhD, JD, is an freelance writer and a former Research Assistant Professor in the Academy of Visual Arts at Hong Kong Baptist University. Before moving to East Asia, he lived, worked, and was educated in the State of New York, which remains his primary research interest and passion.</b><br /><br /><br /><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in; text-align: center; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></p><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in; text-align: center; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></p><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in; text-align: center; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></p><b>References</b><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Adams, Laurie Schneider. Art Across Time. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002.<o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">American Classic Pedigrees. Hanover (USA). (2023). Retrieved from <a href="http://www.americanclassicpedigrees.com/hanover.html" style="color: #954f72;"><span color="windowtext">http://www.americanclassicpedigrees.com/hanover.html</span></a><o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Bailey, Martin. “Ten Myths about Vincent van Gogh.” The Art Newspaper (2019). Retrieved from: <a href="https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2019/12/06/ten-myths-about-vincent-van-gogh" style="color: #954f72;"><span color="windowtext">https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2019/12/06/ten-myths-about-vincent-van-gogh</span></a><o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Barnes, Amanda and Juliet Wright. The Butcher Boys: Part One – The Making of the Brooklyn Stable. Lulu, 2018.<o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Broun, Elizabeth. Albert Pinkham Ryder. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1989.<o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Burke, Edmund. A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful. London: Dodsley, 1757.<o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Caron, David. “Four Horsemen.” Irish Arts Review 36, No. 2 (2019): 116-121.<o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Cole, Mark. “Symbolism on the Race Track.” The Race Track (Death on a Pale Horse). Cleveland Museum of Art (2023). Retrieved from: <a href="https://www.clevelandart.org/art/1928.8" style="color: #954f72;"><span color="windowtext">https://www.clevelandart.org/art/1928.8#</span></a><o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Considine, J. S. “The Rider on the White Horse.” The Catholic Biblical Quarterly 6, No. 4 (1944): 406-422.<o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Dillenberger, Jane and Joshua C. Taylor. The Hand and The Spirit: Religious Art in America 1700-1900. Berkeley: University Art Museum, 1972.<o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Eisler, Robert. “Danse Macabre.” Traditio 6 (1948): 187-225.<o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Ellis, James. “Forest Cathedrals: ‘The Hidden Glory’ of Hudson River Landscapes.” Journal of Religion & Society 21 (2019): 1-20.<o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Evans, Dorinda. “Albert Pinkham Ryder’s Use of Visual Sources.” Winterthur Portfolio 21, No. 1 (1986): 21-40.<o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Evergood, Philip. “The Master’s Faithful Servant.” Archives of American Art Journal 24. No. 3 (1984): 5-8.<o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Fitzpatrick, Charles. “Albert Pinkham Ryder.” Essay in the collection of Harold O. Love, Tucson, Arizona. Microfilm in Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution. Reproduced in Archives of American Art Journal 24. No. 3 (1984): 8-15.<o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Fitzpatrick, Charles. “Albert Pinkham Ryder.” Archives of American Art Journal 24. No. 3 (1984): 8-16.<o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Flagg, Jared. The Life and Letters of Washington Allston. New York, 1892.<o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Goodrich, Lloyd. Albert P. Ryder. New York: Braziller, Inc., 1959.<o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Goodrich, Lloyd. “Realism and Romanticism in Homer, Eakins and Ryder.” The Art Quarterly 12 (1949).<o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Hecimovich, Gregg. "The Cup and the Lip and the Riddle of Our Mutual Friend." ELH 62, No. 4 (1995): 955–977. <o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Holbein, Hans. “The Noblewoman, from The Dance of Death.” (ca. 1526). Retrieved from: <a href="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/336311?when=A.D.+1400-1600&amp;ft=dance+of+death&amp;offset=0&amp;rpp=40&amp;pos=5" style="color: #954f72;"><span color="windowtext">https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/336311?when=A.D.+1400-1600&amp;ft=dance+of+death&amp;offset=0&amp;rpp=40&amp;pos=5</span></a><o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Homer, William Innes. “Albert Pinkham Ryder.” Art Journal 50, No. 1 (1991): 86-89.<o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Homer, William Innes. “Ryder in Washington.” The Burlington Magazine 103. No. 699 (June 1961): 280-283.<o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Homer, William Innes and Lloyd Goodrich. Albert Pinkham Ryder: Painter of Dreams. New York: Abrams, 1989.<o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">“Hotel Albert 1882-1976 Greenwich Village.” TheHotelAlbert.com (2011). Retrieved from: <a href="http://thehotelalbert.com/history/albert_pinkham_ryder.html" style="color: #954f72;"><span color="windowtext">http://thehotelalbert.com/history/albert_pinkham_ryder.html</span></a> <o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Hyde, William. “Albert Ryder as I Knew Him,” Arts 16, No. 9 (1930): 597-598.<o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Kelly, Franklin. Frederick Edwin Church. Washington, D.C.: National Gallery of Art, 1989.<o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Kuspit, Donald. “Albert Ryder’s Expressiveness.” Jahrbuch für Amerikastudien 8 (1963): 219-225.<o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Milliken, William. “’The Race Track,’ or ‘Death on a Pale Horse’ by Albert Pinkham Ryder.” The Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum of Art 15, No. 3 (1928): 65-71.<o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Muybridge, Eadweard. Muybridge's Complete Human and Animal Locomotion. New York: Dover, 1979.<o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame. Hanover (KY). (2023). Retrieved from: <a href="https://www.racingmuseum.org/hall-of-fame/horse/hanover-ky" style="color: #954f72;"><span color="windowtext">https://www.racingmuseum.org/hall-of-fame/horse/hanover-ky</span></a><o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Novak, Barbara. American Painting of the Nineteenth Century. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1969.<o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Polistena, Joyce. “The Unknown Delacroix: The religious imagination of a Romantic painter.” America Magazine (2009). Retrieved from: <a href="https://www.americamagazine.org/issue/700/art/unknown-delacroix" style="color: #954f72;"><span color="windowtext">https://www.americamagazine.org/issue/700/art/unknown-delacroix</span></a><o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Ross, Zachary. “Linked by Nervousness: Albert Pinkham Ryder and Dr. Albert T. Sanden.” American Art 17. No. 2 (2003): 86-96.<o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Ryder, Albert Pinkham. “Joan of Arc.” Microfilm. Washington, D.C.: Archives of American Art, D181, frame 608.<o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Ryder, Albert Pinkham. “Paragraphs from the Studio of a Recluse.” Broadway Magazine 14 (1905): 10-11.<o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Sherman, Frederic F. Albert Pinkham Ryder. New York, 1920.<o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Soby, James T. and Dorothy C. Miller. Romantic Painting in America. New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1943.<o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;"><a name="_Hlk126932819">Taylor, Kendall. “Ryder Remembered.” Archives of American Art Journal 24. No. 3 (1984): 2-4.</a><o:p></o:p></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">Ziff, Norman. “Mortimer’s ‘Death on a Pale Horse,’” The Burlington Magazine 112. No. 809 (1970): 529-535.<o:p></o:p></p></div>DLJhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14674534926004739081noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3330136066649493860.post-70465549004979518172023-01-22T12:28:00.003-08:002023-01-22T12:33:11.805-08:00In This Beautiful Place<br /><b>by <a href="mailto:slriverguy@aol.com">Richard White</a><br />Copyright 2023. All rights reserved by the author.</b><div><b><br /></b><br />“In this beautiful place, which has come to be the acknowledged center for tourists who visit the St. Lawrence River area, there exists a feeling of bitter hatred between the black and white servitors. It has no effect whatever upon the place as a pleasure resort, for the authorities hold both sides in check and will maintain the strictest order here.” <div><br /></div><div>On July 23, 1889, this was the observation of the Watertown <i>Daily Times</i> on Alexandria Bay’s recent race riot that was caused by a “bitter hatred,” and, in addition, it offered a preventive incantation to reassure guests and tourists that there would not be another riot because of strict measures to separate the <br />“bitter” blacks and whites. Although had been a riot in town, the public could still stay at a fabulous resort with all its amenities on a majestic river with great enjoyment.<br /><br /> However, there was no enjoyment on the 18th when two well-armed mobs tried to eradicate each other. The sole instigator of the evening was a local individual, John Gladd, a white longshoreman, whom the Syracuse <i>Weekly Express</i> on July 25 described as “notorious.” Gladd was widely known as “Crosseyed John,” but he easily could have been called “Stupid Crosseyed John.” For example, the night before <br />the riot, Gladd, for no stated reason, went to Flack’s saloon, where many black waiters from the Thousand Island House went after work and confronted them. The <i>Express’</i> reportage did not describe Gladd’s exact behavior, but “he was removed by waiters and the proprietor.” There was no discussion on whether Gladd was thrown out physically or otherwise or whether what he said and/or did was obnoxious. Gladd did not appreciate his forced exit and felt he should have revenge.<br /><br />So, the following night with 10-15 friends whom The Utica <i>Weekly Herald</i> labeled as “well-known characters,” united as a mob and followed Gladd back to Flack’s. The "characters" immediately attacked a small group of waiters with fists and broken pipes and drove them off without serious injury. <br /><br />But these men quickly regrouped, gathered reinforcements and weapons, and went back to the saloon—there were about 20-25 of them, and they were anxious for action, as were Gladd’s mob, whose anthem during the riot was “kill the niggers,” wrote the <i>Times</i> on July 24.<br /><br /> At this juncture, references to firearms being used appeared in many newspaper accounts. For instance, on July 19, the <i>Times</i> coverage of the riot reported that “pistol balls whizzed through the air.” Fortunately, no one on either side was shot. <br /><br />Most of the injuries were the result of the use of billiard cues and clubs. Such was the beating of “a quiet, inoffensive colored waiter who was trying to quiet the mob…and was severely clubbed and beaten for interfering,” Soon, law enforcement would arrive to restore order.<br /><br /> In the aftermath of the riot, there were two critical results. First, there was not any crowd control upon the arrival of Special Officer Fred Cornwall of Watertown, and the village constables, who could do nothing to quell or slow down, the rioters at first because of their belligerent state of mind. Each <br />Watertown Re-Union side was determined to have it out. The July 24 edition explained what Cornwall and his crew finally did to impact the fighting—“they used their batons freely and worked hard” and made nearly a dozen arrests. Gladd slipped away but was arrested the next day along with another ringleader. Later a Grand Jury indicted them, and the two-day trial resulted in sentences for the ringleaders of 35 days in jail, but charges against the rest of the white mob were dropped. <br /><br />The black waiters were not indicted, let alone arrested. The second critical result was that the waiters protested at an evening indignation meeting on July 19, the night following the riot. At the meeting, the status of the waiters was emphasized—they were college students, not local tough guys or “characters” looking for opponents to beat. The <i>Times’</i> coverage was clear but incomplete---it wrote that “it is understood that the colored employees contemplated reopening their troubles with the whites here” but does not present data on other “troubles.” In addition, research has not uncovered any specific racial incidents. <br /><br /> There was no report in the press that the racial tension, let alone the hatred, in the Bay subsided. And just as important, there was no assertion in the press that the riot was not serious compared with the racial violence in the South in an attempt to make it seem unimportant. But even in a picturesque setting in the North, deep seeded feelings and emotions brought two races to violence in 1889.</div><div><br /></div><div><b>About the author: Richard White's articles have appeared in <i>Civil War History, The Journal of Negro History</i>, and other publications.</b><br /><br /> <br /><br /> <p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.693334px; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><span style="font-size: 18pt; line-height: 25.68px;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.693334px; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><span style="font-size: 18pt; line-height: 25.68px;"> </span></p></div></div>DLJhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14674534926004739081noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3330136066649493860.post-6273575740149772702022-12-03T14:07:00.000-08:002022-12-03T14:07:07.038-08:00 Lemuel Cook: The Man Who Outlived History<p><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt;"><b>By <a href="mailto:debonismichael26@gmail.com" target="_blank">Michael Mauro DeBonis</a></b></span></p><p>Rip Van Winkle’s fictional tale pales in comparison to Lemuel Cook’s real-life one. The celebrated American prose stylist (Washington Irving) from New York State’s Hudson Valley was born in New York City on April 3, 1783, to parents of Anglo-Scottish ethnicity (Biography.Com, 1). Irving was a writer of great vision, versatility, and discipline. Yet, with respect to the life of esteemed Revolutionary War veteran and historically concrete Lemuel Cook, Irving’s brilliant literary creation of Van Winkle does not measure up to his actual flesh-and-blood counterpart.</p><br /> “Mr. Cook was born in Northbury, Litchfield County, Connecticut, on September 10, 1759, the son of Henry Cook (Jr.) and a grandson of the first settler of that town, also named Henry Cook (Sr.)” (Hilliard, 7). Lemuel was born on his father Henry Cook’s farm (Frank Cook, 2), the eighth of nine children (Frank Cook, 2). Henry Cook (Jr.) married Lemuel’s mother, Hannah Benham Cook, on November 27th, 1745, in Northbury, Connecticut (Holly Cook, 25-26). Hannah B. Cook died in Northbury, Connecticut, circa 1795 (Holly Cook, 25-26). The great progenitor of the whole Cook family in New England was another Henry Cook, who was an Anglo-Puritan from Yorkshire, England (Frank W. and Holly Cook, 1 and 17-18), and he was born there about 1615 (Frank W. and Holly Cook, 1 and 17-18). Henry the Puritan is first recorded in public records in 1638, at Salem, Massachusetts (Frank W. and Holly Cook, 1 and 17-18).<br /><br /> According to Frank Cook, Lemuel’s great-grandson, an unknown epidemic swept through Connecticut in 1759, killing four of Lemuel’s siblings (Frank Cook, 2), but five of the Cook children (including Lemuel amongst these) had survived the disease (Frank Cook, 2). Lemuel grew up doing the harsh work required on the family farm. Henry Cook, Lemuel’s father, was born on August 17th, 1723, in Wallingford, Connecticut (Holly Cook, 19). Henry Cook, in the French and Indian War, served as a private “during the campaign of 1762” (Holly Cook, 19). As the American Revolution drew near, Henry Cook died on September 6th, 1771 (Holly Cook, 19), presumably of natural causes. “When Henry [also called Henry the Fourth] died, the family was left in depressed circumstances…” (Frank Cook, 2), “…but through it all, the family remained together” (Frank Cook, 2). “At the outbreak of the Revolution in 1775, Lemuel was the first of the Cook sons to enlist…” (Frank Cook, 2), with several of his brothers (including Selah Cook and Trueworthy Cook), both enlisting in the Continental Army, subsequently, as the War for Independence progressed (Frank Cook, 2). Henry Cook, who had honorably served in the King’s Connecticut colonial militia (Holly Cook, 19) and became a very successful farmer afterward (Holly Cook, 19), instilled in all his children a very strong work ethic (Frank Cook, 2), along with his beloved wife, Hannah Benham Cook (Frank Cook, 2). Both Cook's parents could not have anticipated the long bloody war that lay before their sons and the soon-to-be new nation.<br /><br /> “He [Lemuel Cook] enlisted at Cheshire [Connecticut]…when only sixteen years old. He was mustered in ‘…at Northampton, in the Bay State, 2nd Regiment, [Continental] Light Dragoons…’’’(Hilliard, 7). Private Lemuel Cook’s commanding officers were Colonel Sheldon, Captain Stanton (Hilliard, 7), and Major [and eventual Lt. Colonel] Benjamin Tallmadge (Editors-BRTN, 1). Major Benjamin Tallmadge was the chief agent for General George Washington’s Culper Spy Ring (Editors, BRTN, 1). Lemuel Cook “…served through the war, and [he] was discharged in Danbury [Connecticut], on June 12, 1784” (Hilliard, 7-8). In 1864, two years before Lemuel Cook died, Cook commented to Connecticut historian, the Reverend Elias Hilliard, in a famous face-to-face interview, “When I applied to enlist, Captain Hallibud told me I was so small, he couldn’t take me, unless I would enlist for [the entire] war,” (Hilliard, 7-8). Cook, the young intrepid teenager, proudly accepted his role as a soldier. Lemuel Cook’s mettle, from 1775 onwards, would soon be tested by his redcoat enemies.<br /><br /> Sometime after his military induction, Lemuel Cook saw action at Dobbs Ferry (in modern-day Westchester County, New York State) while he was on patrol (Hilliard, 7-8). Cook’s Continental Army Regiment of the Connecticut Second Light Dragoons was at Dobbs Ferry to perform reconnaissance missions against all possible British military operations in what was then infamously called “the Westchester” (Hilliard, 7-8). What Cook and his brave band found was something much worse. As Cook’s company of bluecoat Continentals approach a countryside barn, several armed men inside of it fired their muskets upon Lemuel and his Yankee unit (Hilliard, 3) and their French allies, too (Hilliard, 7-8). Cook commented on this incident to the Reverend Hilliard nearly ninety years later, “They were Cow Boys”’ (Hilliard, 7-8). <br /><br /> The Westchester in lower upstate New York and Suffolk County on Long Island (specifically during the American Revolutionary War) were the two most lawless regions in the northeast area of operations during that long, bloody conflict (Tallmadge, 32-33, 34-35 and 50-52). The London Trade was carried on by both British Tories and alleged Yankee Whigs (Rose, 204 and 232). The London Trade was an illegal smuggling and stealing operation conducted by numerous criminals and opportunists on both sides of the British vs. American campaign, with many neutral (but nefarious) parties also greedily participating (Rose, 232-235). “The Cow Boys,” mentioned by Lemuel Cook, were brutal and devious highwaymen who freely stalked New York State’s roads in both Westchester and Long Island, looking for an easy and suspected target from which they could find to pilfer property and money, civilian or military (Rose, 204 and 232-235). <br /><br />The Cow Boys conducted their venomous and savage raids on land, whereas their counterparts on the sea (especially on the Long Island Sound) carried out their thieving expeditions in open water (Rose, 204 and 232-235). Lemuel Cook’s superior officer, Major Benjamin Tallmadge, called these lowly robbers “freebooters” (Tallmadge, 32). As noted above in Tallmadge’s historically well-detailed and factual Memoir, Tallmadge was constantly waging war against Cow Boys and freebooters alike, doing whatever he could to upset and end their activities during the Revolution (Rose, 204 and 232-235 and Tallmadge, 32-33). This involved Tallmadge and Cook both (as Dragoons) carrying on perpetual sting operations against these crooks, on land and on water, seizing illegally “collected” cargo and burning those ships at sea carrying it (Rose, 235 and Tallmadge, 34, 46, and 48-49). If on land, Tallmadge and Cook would confiscate stolen horses and property from The Cow Boys, and (if possible) they would return them both to their rightful owners. If their rightful owners happened to be redcoat soldiers or Tory sympathizers, Tallmadge and Cook would keep the captured booty for themselves, and they would split it up amongst their Continental ranks (Tallmadge, 52). This conduct was legally permissible by the Continental Congress. <br /><br />The Cow Boys were typical of Tory extraction (Rose, 204), and their criminal counterparts on the Whiggish and patriotic side of the Revolution were robbers called “Skinners” (Rose, 204). Both Cow Boys and Skinners were of lowly and dubious nature. Any sober student of history would be cautioned to align these lawbreakers with any particular side while their convenient loyalties both waxed and waned as the events of the War for Independence took place. Ironically, the Revolutionary War created a very favorable environment for crime and graft to exist on both Loyalist and Whiggish sides of the struggle, but it is a subject for discussion much too broad to be fully discussed here. <br /><br />It should be noted the London Trade was sharply described by Benjamin Tallmadge, fifty years after the conclusion of the Revolutionary War, as “…the illicit trade…”(Tallmadge, 50). Historian Alexander Rose further comments about the London Trade, “Illegal trading understandably alarmed Congress…” (Rose, 73) because it was (during the Revolution) “…draining cash from already cash-strapped strapped states…” (Rose, 73). Rose further says about Tallmadge’s thoughts regarding the Skinners, “Like [Caleb] Brewster, Tallmadge also nursed a particular dislike of these men, who declaimed their Revolutionary principles, while acting like banditti” (Rose, 232). Rose states that Skinners and freebooters alike had a “…terrible effect on [Long Islanders’] morale” (Rose, 232), and Rose proceeds to quote Tallmadge’s wartime thoughts on the Skinners to Washington, “…the marauders from our [American] shore make no distinction between Whig and Tory,’” (Rose, 232). Tallmadge was describing the Skinners’ vulgar and cutthroat behavior on Long Island while carrying on their raiding operations (Rose, 232), and Tallmadge was factually correct that the presence of the Skinners on Paumanok was not only a criminal one for Long Islanders, but it was also a psychologically traumatizing one for Suffolk County residents, too (Rose, 232).<br /><br /> Dealing with brutal and unsavory smugglers, highwaymen, and other criminals was only one of the many military occupations that tasked Yankee cavalrymen Cook and Tallmadge. They also had to fight British enemy redcoats. Yet Lemuel Cook’s well-documented encounter with the Cow Boys was a significant one in his life, and about it, we must more deeply speak.<br /><br /> Lemuel Cook continued relating his wartime tale to Reverend Hilliard, “I felt the wind of the [musket] ball” (Hilliard, 7-8). Cook went on explaining the story to Hilliard, “A [Continental] soldier near me said, ‘Lem, they mean [to shoot] you. Go on the other side of the road.’”(Hilliard, 7-8). Lemuel followed his ally’s advice and did so (Hilliard, 7-8). Cook stated to Hilliard once more, “So I went over…pretty soon another man [Cow Boy] came out of the barn and aimed and fired. He didn’t come near me. Soon another [a third Cow Boy] came out and fired. His [musket] ball lodged in my hat. By this time, the firing had roused the camp, and a company of our troops came on one side [of the road], and a party of the French [also came out] on the other [side of the road]…and they [Continental and French soldiers alike] took the men from the barn prisoners, and [they] brought them in,” (Hilliard, 7-8).<br /><br /> Cook was not done with his Revolutionary War reminiscence as he still related to Hilliard, “When they [the French and Continentals both] brought the men [the Cow Boys] in close, one of them [a Cow Boy] had the impudence to ask, ‘Is the man here we fired at just now?’” (Hilliard, 7-8). “Yes,” said Major Tallmadge, “There he is, that boy” (Hilliard, 7-8). “Then he [the Cow Boy] told how they had each laid out a crown and agreed that the one who brought me down should have the three” (Hilliard, 7-8). Cook continued with his recollection to Hilliard further, “When he [the Cow Boy] got through with his story, I stepped to my holster and [I] took out my pistol and [I] walked up to him and [I] said, ‘If I’ve been a mark to you for money, I’ll take my turn now. So, deliver your money or your life!’ He [the Cow Boy] handed over four crowns, and I got three more from the other two’” (Hilliard, 7-8). <br /><br /> Lemuel Cook (as a Continental teenage soldier) had thus doggedly and shrewdly reversed the Cow Boys’ shakedown against him. Fortunately for Cook, he narrowly lived to tell his tale and was wealthier for it. His story could have very likely ended much differently. Cook had many other Revolutionary adventures that remained ahead of him.<br /><br /> In his final years, Lemuel Cook was also extensively and thoroughly interviewed by his great-grandson, Frank Cook (Frank Cook, 2-4), when both were living in Clarendon, upstate New York (Frank Cook, 2-4). The name of Frank Cook’s historical account of his great grandpa’s personal military experiences and memories from the War for Independence is the terse and penetrating three-page text called Lemuel Remembers Washington (Frank Cook, 2-4). It also contains much of Lemuel’s first-hand testimony concerning his Revolutionary War activities (Frank Cook, 2-4) and is, in as much, as valuable a biographical and historical source of knowledge describing Lemuel Cook’s early life as is Reverend Hilliard’s novel 1864 historical writing <i>The Last Men of the Revolution</i>. Both of the aforementioned sources do not conflict with each other in any way, either factually or chronologically. They do, however, blatantly reinforce the other’s historical veracity.<br /><br /> “As a young lad, I had an opportunity none will have again,” begins Frank Cook’s potent commentary of his great ancestor’s Revolutionary War exploits (Frank Cook, 2-4). Frank Cook continues, “We, the Cook kids, who grew up at Clarendon, were told about the Revolutionary War by its last soldier, our great grandfather Lemuel Cook, who, we more affectionately called, Grandpa Lem” (Frank Cook, 2-4). “He [Lemuel] would take delight telling us about his life, and we were glad to listen” (Frank Cook, 2-4). Frank Cook continued, “We’d watch for Lemuel to come out to sit in his rocker, either on his front porch or under the big old elm tree, in his front yard, as he always did on warm summer afternoons” (Frank Cook, 2-4). Frank Cook goes on to say that Lemuel would flag all his many grandkids over with his cane, and “…[we] would run to see who would get there first for the best seat” (Frank Cook, 2-4).<br /><br /> Frank Cook further comments, “It [Lemuel’s discussion of General George Washington] would usually start with a question. Tell us about George Washington. What did he look like?” (Frank Cook, 2-4). Frank stated about Lemuel Cook still further, “He [Lemuel] would say, ‘Let me think on it…”’ (Frank Cook, 2-4). Frank Cook, moreover, adds about Lemuel, “…a gleam would come to his eye, and he would begin to speak slowly and deliberately” (Frank Cook, 2-4). <br /><br /> Then the wise silver-haired elder statesman of the Cook family began to tell his many progeny his long a-gone tales and memories of General Washington, sixty years after the former American President’s death in 1799. Lemuel began to speak, “I saw General Washington a few times, and I said a few words to him, and he [did] back to me. I’ll not forget. [The] first time I set eyes on him [Washington] was at White Plains or thereabouts. I’d joined up at the first call [with the Continental Army, in 1775], and those first couple of years were hard ones” (Frank Cook, 2-4). <br /><br /> As Lemuel Cook spoke of his distant yesteryear participation in America’s savage and arduous War for Independence, Frank Cook studiously listened to his great grandfather’s words and personal experiences, and Frank Cook carefully jotted down on paper all that Lemuel had uttered aloud…<br /><br /> “Our company was resting near White Plains, after being pushed off the Island [Manhattan] and out of New York City and up [the Harlem] River” (Frank Cook, 2-4). Lemuel was referencing the Patriot withdrawal from Manhattan in the autumn of 1776, immediately following the British invasion thereabouts. This was the frenetic aftermath Lemuel was talking about when the Yankee bluecoats were outmanned and outgunned by their British redcoat adversaries (please see Michael M. DeBonis’ 2017 NYHR article on the subject entitled, “Dangerous Interlude”). General Washington’s badly outnumbered and poorly trained Continental Army could not thwart Lord Howe’s brutal and overwhelming assault on Brooklyn and Manhattan Island. General George Washington had scored two brilliant miracles against Lord William Howe’s relentlessly advancing British forces in the wake of their monstrous onslaught (Tallmadge, 12-13). Firstly, Washington and his Continentals conclusively (and unexpectedly) outclassed the British Army at the Battle of Harlem Heights, towards the northern end of Manhattan Island, and he (Washington) subsequently organized and delivered a brilliantly executed and well-ordered withdrawal of his bloodied and battered Continental Army north to Westchester County, by boldly crossing the Harlem River, before his British enemies could fully surround him (Tallmadge, 12-13). This complicated martial maneuver clearly confused the charging General Howe, and General Washington had skillfully managed to keep most of the starving and retreating American Army entirely together under the severest military and logistical odds thrust against them (Tallmadge, 12-13). <br /><br /> Lemuel continued his reminisces of Washington, “My job was with Major [Benjamin] Tallmadge. Being in the Light Dragoons, we had horses to take care of. Mine was a good ole Bay I’d brought from home. I was caring for my horse and a couple of others that needed rubbing down when I heard a commotion a ways down the road. I could see by the [blue] uniforms it was [a group of] officers leading several companies of Foot. One fellow sat above the others in the saddle, head, and shoulders. I knew he must be the General [Washington]. We had heard how large a man he was. As they came closer, all I could do was stand there with my mouth open. An officer in the front gave me a dirty look like to be saying, ‘How come you don’t salute?”’ (Frank Cook, 2-4). <br /><br /> Lemuel Cook continued, “I whipped off a good fancy one. I suppose the officers dismounted, and [they] went to talk with the Major [Tallmadge]. I went back to [working on] my horse. A while later, the General [Washington] came around the headquarters, where I was, to stretch his legs, I suppose, and [he] said, ‘Is that your horse, soldier?’” Lemuel recounted to his great-grandchildren (Frank Cook, 2-4). Lemuel responded to Washington, “Yes sir,’’ as he came to full attention (Frank Cook, 2-4). Lemuel went on to explain, “He [Washington] put me at ease, and [he] asked [me] my name” (Frank Cook, 2-4). Private Lemuel Cook responded to General George Washington, “Lemuel Cook, from Connecticut, sir” (Frank Cook, 2-4). Washington spoke directly to Lemuel in return, “That’s a right smart mount you have there, Lemuel Cook, from Connecticut” (Frank Cook, 2-4). Lemuel replied to Washington, “He’s done right by me, General” (Frank Cook, 2-4). Washington finished with Lemuel by saying, “Well, you take care of him [Lemuel’s Bay]. You will be glad you did” (Frank Cook, 2-4). Lemuel Cook returned, telling Frank Cook and the others, “With that, the General [Washington] went about his business. That’s all there was to it. I’ll never forget, though, with all the things that must have been pressing on him, he [Washington] took the time for a kind word. He [Washington] had the kindest look in his eyes I’ve ever seen. [I] got the chance to see him [Washington] a few times more, being in the quartermasters. They called us artificers in them days. [I] didn’t see him [General Washington] until some two, maybe three years later” (Frank Cook, 2-4). Lemuel was not done yet with telling his family about his famous wartime army general.<br /><br /> Lemuel resumed his speech of Washington, “We were going down [south from Connecticut and New York] through Head of Elk [Cecil County, Maryland]. Things were getting better…we had been winning [in the War]. We knew we had a big battle coming up somewhere to the south. Scuttlebutt [the gossip in the Continental Army] was that the General [Washington] had gone ahead and [he] would meet us along the way. We had stopped [along our southward journey], and I was minding my own business, paying no mind to no one, when I heard a rich, full voice say, ‘Lem Cook, is that you?’” (Frank Cook, 2-4). Washington continued talking to Lemuel Cook, saying, “I thought that might be you, with that Bay” (Frank Cook, 2-4). Cook responded to Washington, “Yes, sir…It’s very good to see you, sir” (Frank Cook, 2-4). Washington still had more to say to Private Cook, “I admire the lines of your Bay, Lem. I have one like it at Mount Vernon” (Frank Cook, 2-4). Lemuel said to General Washington in return, “Yes, sir. He’s a little worse for wear. But I’ve been keeping your advice. My brothers made me promise to bring him back to the farm when our work was done” (Frank Cook, 2-4). Washington concluded to Cook, “That’s what we’re about, private” (Frank Cook, 2-4). Lemuel Cook further added to his progeny, “And with that, the General [Washington] was gone as quickly as he had appeared” (Frank Cook, 2-4).<br /><br /> Great Grandpa Cook related more about Washington to Frank Cook and his other descendants, “I had whirled around with my eyes bugging out and my mouth wide open, again, amazed that he [Washington] had remembered me” (Frank Cook, 2-4). Lemuel Cook was directly speaking of his second encounter with General Washington. Washington had left a distinctly positive impression on the young American soldier. Lemuel would continue to describe his second meeting with George Washington to his great-grandson Frank, “I’d grown six inches since last time we met [at White Plains, New York]. He must have recognized the horse before recognizing me. It seems as though he still towered a foot over me. But I was ten feet tall after that. ‘How come the General knows you?’” they [Lemuel’s fellow dragoons] all asked. I didn’t tell them. We saw him again at Yorktown, which turned out to be the big one where we were heading. The last time I spoke to him [Washington] was at Danbury, [Connecticut] when he gave [personally to] me my discharge. I was standing there with my brother. I still have my discharge [papers] here, someplace. But, I will have to tell you [the Cook family] about that another time. The General had a look about him, you don’t forget. There are hardly any words to describe him. Those were hard days for the most part, but there were some good things about them, too” (Frank Cook, 2-4). Lemuel met General George Washington four times in total (during the Revolutionary War), and he had conversed with him (Washington) at least twice (Frank Cook, 2-4). Washington did indeed leave an incredibly enduring and noble memory of himself in Lemuel Cook’s mind and soul. As students of American history, we are certainly not at a loss for having Private Cook’s close, firsthand recollections of the great American General interacting with his beloved soldiers.<br /><br /> Reverend Elias Hilliard commented of Lemuel Cook in 1864, “Mr. Cook was at the Battle of Brandywine [Creek], and he was at Cornwallis’ surrender [at the Battle of Yorktown, Virginia]” (Hilliard, 7-8). In regard to the Americans’ attack against the British, at Brandywine Creek, in Pennsylvania, it must be stated that Private Lemuel Cook was not alone. Once again, Cook was in the company of his commanding officer, the recently promoted Major Benjamin Tallmadge (Tallmadge, 20-21). Tallmadge would write of this bitterly contested clash in his highly respected and insightful Memoir sometime before he died at his home in Litchfield, Connecticut, on March 7, 1835 (Tallmadge, 69). Tallmadge says in his very factual account, “On the morning of the 11th of September, 1777, Gen. Howe put his army in order of battle, and [he] moved on towards the Brandywine. The action commenced by 10 o’clock in the morning, and [it] was sustained from right to left [flanks] by turns through the whole line. The action was obstinate on both sides, and [it] lasted through the [whole] day; but the left wing of the British Army, having crossed the [Brandywine] river, some distance above, on the right of our [Continental] army, came down upon our right [flank], while the Hessians [foreign-born German mercenary soldiers in service of the British crown] crossed in front at Chadsford, and the American troops were forced to retire,” (Tallmadge, 21). <br /><br /> Once again, Washington’s troops were badly outgunned and outmanned by their much better-trained and equipped British enemies. The redcoats also outmaneuvered the Patriots, who clearly had superior discipline, battlefield experience, and leadership within their ranks. General (Lord) William Howe may have outflanked General George Washington in his advance on the Continentals, but Washington instantly returned the favor by markedly outflanking the British in his [American] retreat towards Philadelphia, thus evading capture by the hands of the redcoats (Tallmadge, 21). <br /><br /> In the days following the Battle of Brandywine Creek, the British rapidly pursued Washington and his American bluecoats to Philadelphia (Tallmadge, 21 and Rose, 59), the Patriot capital, only to find it abandoned by the Continental Congress and the Continental Army (Rose, 59). The very troublesome American mischief-makers had again skillfully eluded capture by General Howe and his redcoat hordes. The Americans may have given up their capital city, but they retained both their lives and their ability to fight the enemy another day. In this instance, the British Army was shamefully humbled by the bluecoats. Benjamin Tallmadge and Lemuel Cook were both in General George Washington’s personal presence during this very turbulent military campaign. Both Cook and Tallmadge had faithfully and competently served the Continental cause.<br /><br /> Of his individual and direct participation at the Siege of Yorktown, Lemuel Cook does give a succinct account, unlike Tallmadge, who did not participate in the Battle of Yorktown in any capacity (Tallmadge, 45-46). The regiment of Connecticut’s Second Continental Light Dragoons was thus split into two halves, with one half being sent south from the Tristate area to fight General Charles Cornwallis in Virginia (Hilliard, 7-8), while the other half of the Dragoon regiment remained behind in the lower Hudson Valley, near Westchester County, New York, to guard upstate New York and lower New England against any potential British incursions into those regions, that would be possibly launched by British General Henry Clinton, the recoat Commander-in-Chief, based with a formidable army in New York City (Tallmadge, 44-46). <br /><br />Lemuel Cook commented to Hilliard of the Siege of Yorktown, “It was reported that Washington was going to storm New York [City]. We made a bylaw that every man should stick with his horse in our regiment. If his horse went, he [each Continental cavalryman] should go with him. I was waiter [assistant] for the quartermaster, and so I had a chance to keep my horse in good condition. Baron Steuben was muster master [a senior-level record keeper]. He had called us out to select men and horses fit for service” (Hilliard, 7-8). Cook continued to Hilliard, “The next morning, old Steuben had got my name. There were eighteen out of the regiment [the Second Connecticut Continental Light Dragoons]. ‘Be on the ground tomorrow morning at nine o’clock,”’ (Hilliard, 7-8). Thus, Baron Steuben chose Private Lemuel Cook to go on a mission (Hilliard, 7-8). <br /><br />Although Washington had publically put out the word to his troops that they would be attacking New York City from southern Connecticut and Westchester County, in lower upstate New York, Washington privately ordered his officer corps to steer their soldiers around Manhattan Island, having the bluecoats march into New Jersey instead (Hilliard, 7-8 and Tallmadge, 44-45). From New Jersey, General George Washington and his Continentals resumed stampeding southward into the State of Maryland (Hilliard, 7-8 and Tallmadge, 44-45), and, from Maryland, the Continentals continued their southward footwork into Virginia (Hilliard, 7-8 and Tallmadge, 44-45). <br /><br />Of his departure south, Lemuel Cook says, “My colonel [possibly Sheldon, Cook is not specific] didn’t like to have me go” (Hilliard, 7-8). This statement by Lemuel Cook to Reverend Hilliard reinforces the factual reputation that Cook’s record in his own dragoon regiment was stellar and that Cook the soldier was very well respected by his fellow privates and superior officers alike (Hilliard, 7-8). <br /><br /> Cook told Hilliard that the Continentals’ march south to Virginia from Westchester County, New York, and southern Connecticut was arduous (Hilliard, 7-8). Then Cook resumed his speech (to Hilliard) about his firsthand Revolutionary War experiences at the Battle of Yorktown, “Then we were in Virginia. There was not much fighting. [General] Cornwallis tried to force his way north to New York, but he fell into the arms of [General] LaFayette, who drove Cornwallis back [towards Yorktown, Virginia]. Cornwallis was sealed off on land from British General Henry Clinton’s reinforcements in New York City, by LaFayette, and at sea, by French Admiral Count De Grasse (Tallmadge, 45). Fighting conditions quickly deteriorated for the British, who were all garrisoned at ocean-oriented Yorktown in Virginia (Hilliard, 7-8 and Tallmadge 45). British General Lord Charles Cornwallis, in charge of all redcoat military operations in the American southern colonies, tried in vain to fend off the combined infantry and artillery assaults by Washington and LaFayette’s Franco-American force (Tallmadge, 45).<br /><br /> Lemuel Cook continued telling about the Battle of Yorktown to Reverend Hilliard “Washington ordered that there should be no laughing at the British. And he [Washington] said it was bad enough to surrender without being insulted” (Hilliard, 7-8). Major Benjamin Tallmadge affirmed Cook’s observation, commenting on the British surrendering to Yankee and French troops at Yorktown, “The joy and exultation were proportionally great in the allied army, although not the smallest insult was offered to the prisoners” (Tallmadge, 45). Cornwallis’ redcoat Army was also a starving one, with dirty and tattered clothes (Hilliard, 7-8), and Cook described, “…Some [redcoats] had a pint of lice on them…No boots or shoes [either],” (Hilliard, 7-8). Cornwallis and his Royal British Army had little or no supplies at their disposal; hence the British Army’s chances of escape or victory (in the direct presence of the integrated Franco-American Army) were astronomically slim, to none at all (Hilliard, 7-8 and Tallmadge, 45). <br /><br />Cornwallis’ surrender to Washington was inevitable (Tallmadge, 45), and the British General to the American Commander-in-Chief made his undisputed capitulation on October 19, 1781 (Tallmadge, 45). In almost one swipe of his sword, General George Washington and his underdog Continental Army had boldly defeated the most powerful military power (Great Britain) on earth. The colossal and bloody struggle America had fought for so long to gain its political and economic independence from the British Crown was, practically speaking, over. Washington and Lemuel Cook were thus personal witnesses to one of history’s most momentous occasions, and the Reverend Elias Brewster Hilliard had a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to learn of it from a direct survivor of that specific plight.<br /><br />Frank Cook noted of his great Revolutionary ancestor, “Lemuel served for the entire war, and he was wounded several times, but [he was] never seriously [hurt] enough to keep him out of the thick of it for any length of time. Having received his discharge at the close of the War, Lemuel returned to Northbury [Connecticut], where he married Hannah Curtis in 1783” (Frank Cook, 2-4). Hannah C. Cook was a native of Cheshire, Connecticut (Hilliard, 7-8). The Revolution had come to an end, but life for the young, steel-willed Lemuel had barely just begun.<br /><br />After eight harsh years of war, Lemuel only desired a peaceful life of farming (Frank Cook, 2-4). He would never again, in his many years, return to the life of a soldier (Frank Cook, 2-4 and Hilliard, 7-8). Lemuel and Hannah Cook remained in Connecticut until 1788, when they relocated to a farm in Clinton, Oneida County, in upstate New York (Frank Cook, 2-4). For unknown reasons, Lemuel Cook and his family returned to Plymouth, Connecticut, circa 1795, and he became one of the “incorporators” of that town (Frank Cook, 2-4).<br /><br />“He [Lemuel Cook] remained in Connecticut until 1804 when he returned to [upstate] New York” (Frank Cook, 2-4). Lemuel Cook settled with his wife at Pompey, in Onondaga County, following his brothers Selah and True Cook, who both had journeyed and settled there (from Connecticut) sometime before 1795 (Frank Cook, 2-4). At Pompey (in his forty-sixth year), Lemuel Cook bought a sixty-acre farm and prosperously worked it until 1818, when he applied for his first military pension (Frank Cook, 2-4). Cook’s wounds from the American Revolution were beginning to take their toll on his health (Frank Cook, 2-4), and several of his sons, still living with him, were not yet of age to be able to satisfactorily help him with the running of his Pompey farm (Frank Cook, 2-4). Lemuel Cook sold his Pompey farm in 1821, which was positioned on Henneberry Road (Frank Cook, 2-4).<br /><br />Lemuel’s older sons, Lemuel Jr. and Miles Cook, were both of age to give their father some assistance at his farm in Pompey, but both sons had families and farms of their own to tend, so the help they both were able to give to Lemuel Cook Sr. was hence very mitigated (Frank Cook, 2-4). In 1821, Lemuel Cook (Sr.) relocated to North Bergen, in Genesee County, and he bought and operated a farm there (while living with his younger two sons, Gilbert and Selah) until around 1832. Lemuel Cook (Sr.) then moved again (for the final time) to his last residence (also a farm) at Clarendon, New York (Frank Cook, 2-4). Lemuel’s initial land purchase at Pompey, New York, was part of the Military Tract located there (Frank Cook, 2-4).<br /><br />Gilbert and Selah Cook bought and operated their own farms, near their father, at Clarendon, New York (Frank Cook, 2-4). Hannah Cook died sometime in the first part of the nineteenth century (Frank Cook, 2-4) and Lemuel Sr. remarried his second wife, Ruth Cook, formerly of Monroe County (in upstate New York) and a past resident of the village of Sweden (Frank Cook, 2-4). Ruth Cook died in 1860 (Frank Cook, 2-4), causing Lemuel Sr. to stay with his sons, Gilbert and True Cook, who both insisted that their father retire from farming after nearly eighty years of his doing the very rigorous work (Frank Cook, 2-4).<br /><br />Now in his twilight years, Lemuel Cook would enjoy telling his grandchildren and great-grandchildren of his wartime adventures (Frank Cook, 2-4), and (with the help of a cane) Lemuel Cook would cherish walking into town to pick up his pension check, at the Clarendon Post Office, (Frank Cook, 2-4). Two years after his very fortuitous meeting with the superb historian, E. B. Hilliard, the undeniably durable and spirited Revolutionary War veteran Lemuel Cook Sr., passed away at Clarendon, New York, aged 107 years old, succumbing to his infirmity, that which is called great antiquity (Frank Cook, 2-4). The date of Lemuel Sr. Cook’s death is May 20, 1866 (Rochester Union Advertiser, 1), and his subsequent prayer service and burial took place on May 23, 1866, in the family cemetery built on the property of his son, Curtis Cook, in Clarendon, New York (Rochester Union Advertiser, 1). <br /><br />Hilliard’s historical account of Lemuel Cook fills in much of Cook’s background narrative, which is factually absent from Frank Cook’s very concise (though highly detailed) exegesis describing his revered ancestor. It is also noted here that Frank Cook’s excellent biographical commentary about Lemuel provides much missing critical information about Lemuel’s life, which is not at all recorded in Hilliard’s account of Private Cook. And Lemuel Cook’s life was a truly amazing one.<br /><br />Hilliard says that Lemuel Cook, while still a young man, became engaged in a tavern brawl (near Utica, New York) with an unknown aboriginal American (Hilliard 7-8) over a disagreement between them involving cattle (Hilliard, 7-8). The male aboriginal “…assailed him [Lemuel] at a public house, as he [Lemuel] was on his way home, coming at him [Lemuel] with great fury, with a drawn knife. Mr. Cook was unarmed, but catching up a chair, he presented it as a shield against the Indian’s thrusts till help appeared. He [Lemuel] says he never knew what fear was, and he [Lemuel] always declared that no man should take him prisoner alive” (Hilliard, 7-8). Lemuel Cook was not a man who cowered in the presence of danger.<br /><br />E. B. Hilliard further says of Lemuel Cook, “His frame is large. His presence is commanding. In his prime, he [Lemuel] must have possessed prodigious strength. He [Lemuel] has evidently been a man of most resolute spirit…the old determination still manifesting itself in his look and words. His voice [Lemuel’s], the full power of which he still retains, is marvelous for its volume and strength” (Hilliard, 7-8). Hilliard went on relating Lemuel Cook’s character traits, “Speaking of the present [Civil] war, he [Lemuel] said, in his strong tones, at the same time bringing down his cane, with force upon the floor, ‘It is terrible. But, terrible as it is, the rebellion must be put down!’’’ (Hilliard, 7-8). Lemuel was mentally alert and patriotic at one hundred and five years old and two years from his death. But he very well knew that a civil war is the worst kind of war, where fathers square off against their sons and brothers kill their brothers. Lemuel Cook knew this awful reality because he had engaged in such a war (against the British) during the Revolution. Indeed, the American Revolution resembled the American Civil War in many categories, although the battles of the Revolution had body counts usually much lower than those of Civil War battles.<br /><br />In his old age, Lemuel Cook often stuttered in his speech and frequently had problems with his memory (Hilliard, 7-8). Lemuel would quickly catch on to the gist of a conversation once his years-rich mind became focused (Hilliard, 7-8). He (Lemuel) enjoyed hearing and telling good jokes, talking to his friends and family, going on long walks, and reading his Bible (Hilliard, 7-8). Hilliard was positive to document Cook’s political leanings as an active and life-long Democrat (Hilliard, 7-8). But, unlike many Democrats of Civil War America, Lemuel Cook Sr. was one who was wholly loyal to the Union cause (Hilliard, 7-8).<br /><br />Lemuel Cook was a very dynamic force in American history, from his personal life in the late eighteenth century of colonial British America through to the early, middle, and late nineteenth century. At this very time, a new nation did rise, unseen like any in the history of the world before it, brazenly declaring that all men under God were created equal and that the newly-minted country, called the United States of America, would dedicate all of its people, resources and lifespan to the fulfilling of this divine declaration (See U. S. Declaration of Independence, paragraphs 1-8, by Thomas Jefferson and others).<br /><br />The story of Lemuel Cook is the story of the United States of America. Lemuel Cook’s biography is one of the most astonishing life stories in all of American history. Although Lemuel Cook’s life ties him directly to the history of Connecticut and New York State, Cook’s story historically transcends its time, place, and space with respect to American geography. This is so because America was Lemuel Cook and Lemuel Cook was America. History cannot be neglectful of its own events, but, more significantly, history cannot be derelict in the proper mentioning of the very souls who inhabit it…and Lemuel Cook’s soul looms largely over our American history.<br /><br />Lemuel Cook’s markedly novel and extraordinary life incorporates the last two decades of Western Civilization’s Enlightenment, the whole of the nineteenth century’s Romantic Movement in the arts, letters, and music that replaced it, as well as the first two-thirds of the Victorian Age (Harrington, 545-561 and Capers, 561-579). Lemuel Cook’s life directly coincided with the lives of esteemed American thinkers and writers as diverse as Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, to those of Walt Whitman, Herman Melville, and Mark Twain, who followed them both (in the annals of American history) much, much later on in time (Harrington, 545-561 and Capers, 561-579). The hugely expansive length of Lemuel Cook’s life makes his individual biography virtually unprecedented in the time span of his American country. For instance, Lemuel Cook was very well alive for Cornwallis’ remarkable surrender to Washington at Yorktown, Virginia (in 1781), as well as being alive, too, for Robert E. Lee’s epoch-making surrender to Ulysses S. Grant, at Appomattox Courthouse, also in Virginia (in 1865). Cook lived long enough for the American Civil War to begin and end. And Lemuel Cook lived long enough to understand the Civil War’s historical importance with respect to the American nation as a whole. At age 105, Lemuel still had his wits about him (Hilliard, 7-8), albeit his wits were at times slowed down by his much-advanced age (Hilliard, 7-8). <br /><br />The<i> Brookhaven Times Newspapers </i>comment on Lemuel Cook’s life, “He [Lemuel Cook] lived through the War of 1812…saw his countrymen settle westward, achieving new frontiers…and in 1861, he saw our young republic descend into a brutal civil war,” (Editors, BRTN, 1). The <i>Brookhaven Times Newspapers</i> also accurately say of Lemuel Cook, “At the time of his [Lemuel’s] enlistment [in the Continental Army] in 1775, there were just thirteen British colonies. By the time of his [Lemuel’s] death [in 1866], there were [existing] thirty-six American states” (Editors, BRTN, 1). Cook lived through the American life and times of Manifest Destiny, the Mexican-American War, the Indian Wars, and the First Industrial Revolution (Harrington, 545-561 and Capers, 561-579). Cook’s life is certainly not one to be overlooked by American historians. Lemuel’s eyes “…witnessed so much: [they] watched as Benjamin Tallmadge led charges against British soldiers, watched as [fellow Culper spy and New Yorker] Caleb Brewster carried secret messages to camp, and they witnessed [at Yorktown] the sword of General Cornwallis being offered to [General] Washington,” (Editors, BRTN, 1). The eyes of Lemuel Cook were wise and discriminating.<br /><br />There are no legal or family records from Lemuel Cook’s vast and vital life that document any possible criminal activity or financial distress of his while he lived, whether Lemuel was living in New England or whether he was living in upstate New York. All written documentation regarding Lemuel Cook’s life strongly indicates that he was a genuinely moral, and diligently laborious farmer. The historical record also shows that Lemuel Cook was an industrious and economically successful agriculture agent. <br /><br />From Lemuel Cook’s last will and testament, drafted and sealed in 1855 (Lemuel Cook, 1), we see at that time, Lemuel Cook Sr. had eight living children, including seven male heirs and two female heirs (Lemuel Cook, 1). Their names are Esther Coleman, Curtis Cook, Gilbert Cook, Lemuel Cook Jr., Lyman Cook, Miles Cook, Worthy Cook, and Electa Tousley (Lemuel Cook, 1). The Senior Lemuel Cook’s last will and testament was registered in Orleans County of upstate New York (Lemuel Cook, 1). Lemuel Cook’s son Selah Cook is not listed in his will with his other children (Lemuel Cook, 1). But from Lemuel’s codicil, written sometime later on and clearly printed at the bottom of Lemuel’s will, we know that his son Selah Cook was alive when Lemuel Cook Sr. died and that Selah was residing in Flint, Michigan (Lemuel Cook, 1). For unknown reasons, Selah Cook has not left any fixed sum of money in his father’s will, as all of Lemuel Sr.’s other heirs had been given by him (Lemuel Cook, 1). Selah Cook was only bequeathed by Lemuel Cook Sr. some of the monies collected from the sales of the great patriarch’s chattel properties (Lemuel Cook, 1). All of the Senior Lemuel’s progeny in the 1866 probated will are listed as living in upstate New York (Lemuel Cook, 1), with the two exceptions of Selah Cook (who is listed as being a resident of Flint, Michigan) and Lyman Cook, who is documented in Lemuel Cook’s will as being a resident of Buffalo, Wisconsin (Lemuel Cook, 1). Gilbert Cook (as the executor of his father’s will) seems to be the greatest recipient of Lemuel Cook Senior’s estate, receiving the sum of $400.00 dollars (Lemuel Cook, 1), which is two hundred dollars more received than most of Lemuel’s other heirs (Lemuel Cook, 1). Gilbert Cook profited even further from the benefit of his father’s settlement, as in the case of the elder Lemuel’s daughters, Electa and Esther (Lemuel Cook, 1), with Gilbert being awarded $390.00 dollars more than each of them. We may only speculate as to why Lemuel’s two daughters (Esther Coleman and Electa Tousley) each received only ten dollars in his will (Lemuel Cook, 1).<br /><br />With Lemuel Cook’s death in May of 1866, one of America’s final living bridges to the War for Independence had forever vanished. But, we do not see Lemuel Cook as some tragically orphaned, anachronistic ghost. Rather, we must see Lemuel Cook for what he was. The exceptionally long-lived Revolutionary War private was an incarnate example of America’s greatest possibilities. We have several historically authentic photographs of him and three authentic verbatim personal commentaries of his left to us, which reveal much about Lemuel Cook to our minds and to our spirits alike. Most importantly, modern America has Lemuel Cook’s great life as leaving behind a rich legacy. This is one that expresses American values at their best. Such a heritage is entirely immune to the destructive power of passing time, and (because of this) Lemuel Cook outlives history.<br /><br /> <br /><b>About the Author:</b> Michael Mauro DeBonis is a poet and a historian from Long Island, NY. A graduate of both Suffolk County Community College (A. A. in Liberal Studies) and SUNY at Stony Brook (B. A. in English literature), Michael’s work first appeared in the <i>Brookhaven Times Newspapers</i> and in the <u>Village Beacon Record</u>. His current work (poetry and prose) may be found in The <i>New York History Review</i> and elsewhere. Mr. DeBonis is dedicated to studying and to learning the history of the great State of New York. <p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /><br /><b> Bibliography:</b><br /><br /><br />1) Biography.Com, Washington Irving: A Life, 2015-2020, copyright 2022, The Editors.<br /><br />2) The Brookhaven Times Newspapers, Under Tallmadge’s Command: The Last Surviving Culper Connection, The TBR Staff, August 19, 2016, Setauket, NY, copyright 2022.<br /><br />3) Gerald M. Capers, The Encyclopedia Americana, volume 27, pages 561-579, copyright 1970, New York, NY, The Americana Corporation.<br /><br />4) Frank Cook, Lemuel Remembers Washington, circa 1855-1864, Clarendon, NY, <a href="http://www.burrcook.com/">www.burrcook.com</a>, copyright 2022, Burr Cook.<br /><br />5) Frank W. Cook and Holly Cook, The Cooks: A Family Genealogy (1978-2013), <a href="http://www.burrcook.com/">www.burrcook.com</a>, copyright 2022, Burr Cook.<br /><br />6) Lemuel Cook, Last Will and Testament, 1855-1865, Clarendon, NY, <a href="http://www.burrcook.com/">www.burrcook.com</a>, copyright 2022, Burr Cook.<br /><br />7) Fred Harvey Harrington, The Encyclopedia Americana, volume 27, pages 545-561, copyright 1970, New York, NY, The Americana Corporation.<br /><br />8) Elias Brewster Hilliard, The Last Men of the Revolution, copyright 1863-1865, Hartford, Connecticut.<br /><br />9) Thomas Jefferson, The United States Declaration of Independence, paragraphs 1-8, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, July 4th, 1776.<br /><br />10) The Rochester Union Advertiser, Obituaries, May 22, 1866, copyright 1866, Clarendon, NY, The Editors.<br /><br />11) Alexander Rose, Washington’s Spies: The Story of America’s First Spy Ring, copyright 2006-2007, Bantam Dell/Random House Publishing, New York, NY.<br /><br />12) Benjamin Tallmadge, Memoir of Colonel Benjamin Tallmadge, Forgotten Books/Dalton House Publishing, copyright 2015, London, England.<br /><br /> <br /><br /> <br /><br /> <br /><br /><br /><style class="WebKit-mso-list-quirks-style">
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</style>DLJhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14674534926004739081noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3330136066649493860.post-72792649315505675202022-12-03T13:42:00.005-08:002022-12-03T13:42:55.657-08:00 History as Poetry<p><b> <i style="font-family: Cambria, serif;">History as Poetry</i></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif;"> </span><br /><br />Are you the one who stashes your dreams,<br />at bottoms of rivers, or star-striped streams?<br />Are your memories of days long-past<br />written on sea-foams, where moonlight’s cast?<br />Tell me who you are… Tell me who you are…<br />What is your place in the sky?<br />When did dusk or dawn first color each eye?<br />How brightly burns your star? <br />Tell me who you are… Tell me who you are…<br />Where is the place you will rest your breath?<br />What sings sparrows of life or death?<br />Will your feet in the snow trail near or far?<br />Tell me who you are… Tell me who you are… <br /><br /><br /><b>---Michael Mauro DeBonis, 09-25-2022.</b><br /><br /> <br /><br /><br /><br /><br />About the Poet: Michael Mauro DeBonis is a poet and a historian from Long Island, New York. A graduate of both Suffolk County Community College (A. A. in Liberal Studies) and SUNY at Stony Brook (B. A. in English literature), Michael’s work first appeared in the <i>Village Beacon Record</i> and in the <i>Brookhaven Times </i>Newspapers. His current work (poetry and prose) may be found in <i>The New York History Review</i> and elsewhere. Mr. DeBonis is dedicated to studying and to learning the history of the great State of New York.<br /><br /> <br /><br /> </p>DLJhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14674534926004739081noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3330136066649493860.post-24479653623686924552022-11-30T12:23:00.000-08:002023-03-13T12:24:06.136-07:00Eleazer Williams: Indian Preacher and Sometimes Pretender <b>By <a href="mailto:rebecca.rector@yahoo.com" target="_blank">Rebecca Rector</a></b><br />All rights reserved ©2023<div><br /><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">E</span>leazer Williams (1788-1858) was the great-great grandson of Rev. John Williams, who survived the 1704 Indian raid on Deerfield, Massachusetts. The family members that survived were marched to Kahnawake (Caughnawaga), Canada, a Catholic settlement of the Mohawk tribe. Rev. John was later redeemed from Canada and returned to Deerfield, but his daughter Eunice elected to stay. She married a Mohawk, Francois Xavier Arosen, and became known as the “unredeemed captive.” Her grandson Eleazer was born in Canada in about 1788, of mixed Anglo and Mohawk blood. He straddled both the Indian and white worlds, later living and preaching in New York and Wisconsin.<br /> <br />As a child, he and his brother John were sent to school in Massachusetts. In 1803 Eleazer wrote a letter his brother – first thanking God for his multitude of tender mercies, and reminding John - “oh, remember that we are born to die and must soon appear before him.” In another letter to John, in January 1804, he wrote: “It is my ernest [sic] wish for your salvation and good. I hope God will make you happy - in this world and more in that which is to come - I commend you to the care of God…”<a href="applewebdata://70F2C698-83EE-47CD-8D3A-21CD0093FA4A#_edn1">[1]</a></div><br /><br /><b>Several other early letters reveal his religious thoughts: </b><br /><br /><ul style="text-align: left;"><li>1806 to friend Charles Sheldon: “We must remember, my friend, that we are probationers for eternity, placed here on Earth, we are bound to neither state of existence - to a world of light & joy or that region of darkness & woe-- If we mean to be prosperous in this world. We must love and keep his commandments and trust in him.” <a href="applewebdata://70F2C698-83EE-47CD-8D3A-21CD0093FA4A#_edn2">[2]</a></li></ul><ul style="text-align: left;"><li>and 1806 to his cousin Rev. Elisha Williams in Beverly, Massachusetts on the death of Elisha’s child: “Truly life is uncertain & how short it is our abode in this world and soon shall we bid adieu to it, We are all glideing down the stream of time, and shall soon reach the ocean of eternity; who can promise himself years to come? what is our life. It is like vapour that offereth for a little time & then vanesheth away.”<a href="applewebdata://70F2C698-83EE-47CD-8D3A-21CD0093FA4A#_edn3">[3]</a></li></ul><br />Eleazer was exposed early to Catholicism at Caughnawaga, but he later rejected these teachings and those of his Calvinistic mentors in New England. In 1815 Eleazer took his first communion and was confirmed at St. John’s Episcopal Church in New York City by Bishop John Henry Hobart.<a href="applewebdata://70F2C698-83EE-47CD-8D3A-21CD0093FA4A#_edn4">[4]</a> In 1816 Hobart established a Mission at Oneida Castle, NY, where Eleazer became a lay catechist, reader, and teacher to the Indians in their native tongue, supported by the Episcopal Church.<a href="applewebdata://70F2C698-83EE-47CD-8D3A-21CD0093FA4A#_edn5">[5]</a> There, he converted many Oneida’s to the Episcopal faith, and translated the Book of Common Prayer and some hymns into the Mohawk language. He also interpreted for Baptist missionaries with the Oneidas and Stockbridge tribes.<a href="applewebdata://70F2C698-83EE-47CD-8D3A-21CD0093FA4A#_edn6">[6]</a><br /><br />At this time, he also began assisting some Oneida and Stockbridge Indians to relocate to Green Bay, Wisconsin, due to pressure from whites wanting to settle on their lands. After the Revolution, it had become government policy to remove all Indians west of the Mississippi, and Eleazer became involved in some land deals, especially as a negotiator for the Ogden Land Company. Although appearing to help the Indians, he was really assisting the land company, causing many Indians to mistrust him.<a href="applewebdata://70F2C698-83EE-47CD-8D3A-21CD0093FA4A#_edn7">[7]</a> During the 1820s and 1830s, he moved back and forth frequently between Wisconsin and the St. Regis Mohawk Reservation on the New York -Canadian border. Back in Wisconsin, he married Madeleine (Mary) Jourdain in 1823, daughter of Joseph Jourdain, a blacksmith of the Green Bay Indian Agency. Their son John was born there in 1825.<a href="applewebdata://70F2C698-83EE-47CD-8D3A-21CD0093FA4A#_edn8">[8]</a> In 1826 Eleazer was ordained an Episcopal deacon in New York.<a href="applewebdata://70F2C698-83EE-47CD-8D3A-21CD0093FA4A#_edn9">[9]</a> He was appointed schoolmaster at St. Regis Mission in 1835, but he came into conflict with the Catholic missionaries there and was forced to leave a year later.<a href="applewebdata://70F2C698-83EE-47CD-8D3A-21CD0093FA4A#_edn10">[10]</a><br /><br />During the 1840s, he continued to travel frequently, preaching and lecturing. However, he had again come into conflict, this time with the Episcopal hierarchy and the Oneida tribe in Wisconsin. There were complaints about his conduct and that he was representing other denominations. In 1842 he published “The Salvation of Sinners through the riches of Divine Grace.” This was a speech he gave at Oneida Castle on the eighth triennial anniversary of the Indians conversion to Christianity.<a href="applewebdata://70F2C698-83EE-47CD-8D3A-21CD0093FA4A#_edn11">[11]</a><br /><br />Eleazer Williams played many roles during his life – preacher, teacher, lecturer, negotiator, and interpreter. He was also a storyteller and at times stretched the truth. In the late 1850s, he wrote a biography of this father, Thomas [Indian name Tehoragwanegen], and apparently embellished some of it, especially Thomas’ roles during the Revolutionary War and War of 1812.<a href="applewebdata://70F2C698-83EE-47CD-8D3A-21CD0093FA4A#_edn12">[12]</a> Another story that has been perpetuated for many years is that Eleazer claimed to be the “lost dauphin” of France, the real son of King Louis XVI. It was a time when he was no longer supported by the church and needed money. He was adept at manipulating situations and people as he sought prestige and prominence.<br /><br />He played up this fraudulent tale into the 1850s and newspapers all over the country printed the story, wondering if he could <i>really</i> be the dauphin and of French Bourbon blood. It was quite an intriguing story and was apparently passed down through his family, as his son John L., in the 1880 census of Oshkosh, Wisconsin, listed his father as being born in France! Ultimately, the story was recently proved untrue, as DNA analysis in 2000 of the presumed heart of the long-dead child king [Louis XVII] matched the DNA of a hair sample from Marie Antoinette.<a href="applewebdata://70F2C698-83EE-47CD-8D3A-21CD0093FA4A#_edn13">[13]</a><br /><br />Sadly, Eleazer died on 28 August 1858,<a href="applewebdata://70F2C698-83EE-47CD-8D3A-21CD0093FA4A#_edn14">[14]</a> poor and alone at the St. Regis reservation in New York. The Albany <i>Morning Express</i> stated he had “gone to the spirit land where that mystery in regard to his parentage is made plain.”<a href="applewebdata://70F2C698-83EE-47CD-8D3A-21CD0093FA4A#_edn15">[15]</a> Although often cast in a negative light, it is important to recognize that he, as an Indian, struggled with dual identities and was often marginalized. James A. Clifton writes, “Looking back on his life career of serial assumed identities from the perspective of our era, we can see in him a person who vaulted from one persona to another… Was there, however, a stable, core identity behind the many masks he wore?” <a href="applewebdata://70F2C698-83EE-47CD-8D3A-21CD0093FA4A#_edn16">[16]</a> He had noble aspirations, but his desire for prestige and claims to fame got the best of him. His wife Mary continued to live in Wisconsin, where several censuses list degrees of Indian ethnicity for her and adopted Indian children and grandchildren.<br /><br /><b>About the author: <br />Rebecca Rector is a professional genealogist and retired librarian in Troy, NY. During the pandemic she has been transcribing letters and diaries for Newberry Library in Chicago, and National Archives. One of the Newberry projects was the letters and sermons of Rev. Eleazer Williams. Her work has been published in <i>American Ancestors</i> and <i>NGS Magazine</i>. <br /></b><br /><div><hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" /><div id="edn1"><p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a href="applewebdata://70F2C698-83EE-47CD-8D3A-21CD0093FA4A#_ednref1" name="_edn1" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666px;">[1]</span></span></span></a> Eleazar Williams letters, sermons, and essays, 1758-1858, Newberry Library, Chicago, image 114446, and image 114448.<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn2"><p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a href="applewebdata://70F2C698-83EE-47CD-8D3A-21CD0093FA4A#_ednref2" name="_edn2" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666px;">[2]</span></span></span></a> Eleazer Williams letters, sermons, and essays, 1758-1858, Newberry Library, Chicago, image 114457.<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn3"><p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a href="applewebdata://70F2C698-83EE-47CD-8D3A-21CD0093FA4A#_ednref3" name="_edn3" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666px;">[3]</span></span></span></a> Eleazer Williams letters, sermons, and essays, 1758-1858, Newberry Library, Chicago, image 114459/60.<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn4"><p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a href="applewebdata://70F2C698-83EE-47CD-8D3A-21CD0093FA4A#_ednref4" name="_edn4" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666px;">[4]</span></span></span></a> Michael Oberg<i>, Professional Indian: The American Odyssey of Eleazer Williams</i> (Phila: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015), 51.<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn5"><p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a href="applewebdata://70F2C698-83EE-47CD-8D3A-21CD0093FA4A#_ednref5" name="_edn5" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666px;">[5]</span></span></span></a> History of Madison County, State of NY, Chapter 1, online at <a href="http://madison.nygenweb.net/books/1872-1b.htm">http://madison.nygenweb.net/books/1872-1b.htm</a><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn6"><p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a href="applewebdata://70F2C698-83EE-47CD-8D3A-21CD0093FA4A#_ednref6" name="_edn6" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666px;">[6]</span></span></span></a> Michael Oberg, “Flawed Shepard: Eleazer Williams, John Henry Hobart, and the Episcopal Mission to the Oneidas”, in <i>The Wisconsin Oneidas and the Episcopal Church: A Chain Linking Two Traditions, </i>ed.<i> </i>L. Gordon McLester 111 et. al.<i> </i> (Indiana University Press, 2019), 46.<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn7"><p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a href="applewebdata://70F2C698-83EE-47CD-8D3A-21CD0093FA4A#_ednref7" name="_edn7" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666px;">[7]</span></span></span></a> Oberg, <i>Professional Indian</i>, 85-86. For a contemporary Oneida point of view see: Dr. Carol Cornelius, Forces that Impacted Oneida’s Move to Wisconsin, Oneida Cultural Heritage Department, online at <a href="https://oneida-nsn.gov/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/FORCES-THAT-IMPACTED-ONEIDAS-MOVE-TO-WISCONSIN-9.13.pdf">FORCES-THAT-IMPACTED-ONEIDAS-MOVE-TO-WISCONSIN-9.13.pdf</a> <o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn8"><p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a href="applewebdata://70F2C698-83EE-47CD-8D3A-21CD0093FA4A#_ednref8" name="_edn8" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666px;">[8]</span></span></span></a> John H. Hanson, <i>The Lost Prince</i> (NY: G.P. Putnam & Co., 1854), 300; Publius V. Lawson, <i>Prince, or Creole: The</i> <i>Mystery of Louis XVII</i> (Menasha, WI: George Banta Publishing Co., 1905), 279.<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn9"><p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a href="applewebdata://70F2C698-83EE-47CD-8D3A-21CD0093FA4A#_ednref9" name="_edn9" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666px;">[9]</span></span></span></a> Darren Bonaparte, Eleazer Williams: The Lost Mohawk. Wampum Chronicles, online at <a href="http://www.wampumchronicles.com/lostmohawk.html">http://www.wampumchronicles.com/lostmohawk.html</a><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn10"><p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a href="applewebdata://70F2C698-83EE-47CD-8D3A-21CD0093FA4A#_ednref10" name="_edn10" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666px;">[10]</span></span></span></a> Dictionary of Canadian Biography, online at <a href="http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/williams_eleazer_8E.html">http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/williams_eleazer_8E.html</a><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn11"><p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a href="applewebdata://70F2C698-83EE-47CD-8D3A-21CD0093FA4A#_ednref11" name="_edn11" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666px;">[11]</span></span></span></a> Eleazer Williams. The Salvation of Sinners through the riches of Divine Grace. <a href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=loc.ark:/13960/t8bg2sp5k&view=1up&seq=5">https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=loc.ark:/13960/t8bg2sp5k&view=1up&seq=5</a><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn12"><p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a href="applewebdata://70F2C698-83EE-47CD-8D3A-21CD0093FA4A#_ednref12" name="_edn12" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666px;">[12]</span></span></span></a> Eleazer Williams, <i>Life of TE-HO-RA-GWA-NE-GEN, Alias Thomas Williams, A Chief of the Caughnawaga Tribe of Indians in Canada</i>. (Albany, NY: Munsell, 1859). <a href="https://www.canadiana.ca/view/oocihm.42167/3">https://www.canadiana.ca/view/oocihm.42167/3</a>. Published by Franklin B. Hough. Handwritten copy (mss galley) is at New York State Archives, Franklin B. Hough papers. Much of the war information is unproven.<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn13"><p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a href="applewebdata://70F2C698-83EE-47CD-8D3A-21CD0093FA4A#_ednref13" name="_edn13" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666px;">[13]</span></span></span></a> Crispian Balmer, DNA Test Solves Mystery of French Child King. Reuters article, Paris, April 19 [2000] in The Oneida Nation in Wisconsin has a Long History of Following Fraudsters, online at <a href="file:///C:/Users/Owner/Downloads/ONEIDA-NATION-FOLLOWS-SCOUNDRELS-%E2%80%93-DNA-Test-Solves-Mystery-of-Lost-Dauphin(4).pdf">ONEIDA-NATION-FOLLOWS-SCOUNDRELS-–-DNA-Test-Solves-Mystery-of-Lost-Dauphin(4).pdf</a><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn14"><p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a href="applewebdata://70F2C698-83EE-47CD-8D3A-21CD0093FA4A#_ednref14" name="_edn14" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666px;">[14]</span></span></span></a> “Death of the Rev. Eleazer Williams, the Pretended Dauphin of France”. <i>New York Times</i>, September 4, 1858, 5. <o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn15"><p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a href="applewebdata://70F2C698-83EE-47CD-8D3A-21CD0093FA4A#_ednref15" name="_edn15" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666px;">[15]</span></span></span></a> “A Letter to the Journal of Commerce from Bombay, Franklin County says: the Dauphin, alias Rev. Eleazer Williams, is dead” <i>Albany Morning Express</i>, September 4, 1858, online at Fultonhistory.com.<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn16"><p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a href="applewebdata://70F2C698-83EE-47CD-8D3A-21CD0093FA4A#_ednref16" name="_edn16" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666px;">[16]</span></span></span></a> Geoffrey E. Buerger<i>, “</i>Eleazer Williams: Elitism and Multiple Identity on Two Frontiers”, in <i>Being and Becoming Indian: Biographical Studies of North American Frontiers</i>, ed. James A. Clifton (Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1989), 112. Clifton wrote the introduction to Buerger’s essay.<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText"><o:p> </o:p></p></div></div><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666px;">[1]</span></span></span> “A Letter to the Journal of Commerce from Bombay, Franklin County says: the Dauphin, alias Rev. Eleazer Williams, is dead” <i>Albany Morning Express</i>, September 4, 1858, online at Fultonhistory.com.<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666px;">[1]</span></span></span> Geoffrey E. Buerger<i>, “</i>Eleazer Williams: Elitism and Multiple Identity on Two Frontiers”, in <i>Being and Becoming Indian: Biographical Studies of North American Frontiers</i>, ed. James A. Clifton (Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1989), 112. Clifton wrote the introduction to Buerger’s essay.<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p></div>DLJhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14674534926004739081noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3330136066649493860.post-72138235221774117422022-10-08T11:33:00.015-07:002022-10-08T11:58:53.998-07:00 Yiddishkeit: Preserving Jewish Identity in Albany, 1850-1930.<p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; margin: 0in;">by <a href="strumh@sage.edu " target="_blank">Harvey Strum</a>, Russell Sage College<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; margin: 0in;">Copyright © 2022. All rights reserved by the author.</p><br /><br />Rabbis did not like secular Jewish communal institutions’ proliferation from the middle of the 19th century into the early 20th century. Clubs, fraternal organizations, societies, lodges, women’s organizations, Zionist associations, and athletic organizations did not monitor members’ behavior or admonish members to fulfill their specific religious responsibilities. In America, a “decoupling of previously fused ethnic and religious components of Jewish group life and self-identification developed.” Yiddishkeit---“as a folk or people with a common history---became separable from Judaism” and produced “a rapid proliferation of religion unrelated social and cultural institutions.”<a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_edn1">[1]</a><br /><br /><br /> “The rabbis complained that lodges, clubs, societies, and other ‘community’ institutions undermined their authority and drained membership from their congregations. and encouraged American indifference to religion,” according to historian Hasia Diner. For example, Rabbi Solomon Schindler, a leading Reform rabbi in Boston, bemoaned the low attendance at synagogues because Jewish immigrants considered “their lodge meetings” equivalent to attending religious services. Historians agreed with Schindler’s analysis and considered it a product of the American separation of church and state and widespread voluntarism. American Jews, whether in Albany, New York, or Chicago, voluntarily joined together in associations that served their social, educational, philanthropic, mutual aid, political, and communal needs. Fraternal organizations served the needs of an immigrant generation and their American-born sons searching for a sense of belonging and social fellowship. Max Schlesinger and Simon Rosendale believed in 1910 that immigrants “stood alone in a strange land” and lodges supplied “ties of friendship,” a deep-felt need of new immigrants. For Jewish immigrants seeking to adjust to a strange new environment creating voluntary associations helped in adapting to America. Fraternal orders and other voluntary societies developed in every Jewish community. As the Utica Jewish community historian concluded, the associations filled “the need for social integration and cultural adjustment to the American environment.” Some Jewish immigrants viewed these groups as a way to maintain their identity as Jews outside of attendance at synagogues, while others used them as halfway stations for Americanization and assimilation. For Jews who did not frequent taverns, the fraternal societies allowed men to socialize in a safe, reassuring, and positive atmosphere creating an alternative to their often drab and exploitive occupations. <a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_edn2">[2]</a><br /><br /> Albany’s Jews organized their own institutions for social, fraternal, and philanthropic purposes. Between 1843 and 1859, each of the synagogues, Orthodox Beth El (German). Reform Anshe Emeth and Orthodox Beth El Jacob (Polish) organized burial societies and mutual aid societies for the ill. Modeled after the Chevra Kadisha (holy society) of European communities, these societies “ performed the prescribed rituals surrounding the death” from purification of the body to burial. Jewish religious tradition required that Jews must be buried in separate cemeteries for Jews. Every synagogue purchased land for a cemetery, and every Jewish organization formed in the 19th or early 20th centuries made provisions for the burial of their members. Gentiles could not be buried in a Jewish cemetery. Jewish immigrants maintained this tradition, whether Reform or Orthodox, whether in Albany, New York, or in Albany, Georgia. <a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_edn3">[3]</a><div><br /> In 1843, the Society for Brotherly Love became the first society in Albany to provide mutual aid for the ill, assist with burials if needed, assist the poor, and help recent Jewish immigrants and Jewish travelers passing through the city. Brotherly Love emerged as the first association independent of the synagogues. By 1847, a Ladies' Benevolent Society started with a separate School Fund Society “to pay for the schooling of poor Hebrew children.” In 1855, the synagogues united their societies to aid the poor and sick, creating, on September 20, 1855, the Hebrew Benevolent Society of Albany. This occurred not without dispute. Initially, all were in agreement, and” this union was saluted by every candid mind as a step to reunite our Israelites in sentiments and in pursuit of a noble purpose.” A dispute quickly emerged, however, with another philanthropic association that had just been established, Shiloh Lodge of B’nai B’rith, over conflicting fundraising efforts in 1854. In spite of the rocky start, both organizations quickly became well-respected philanthropies winning recognition from local political leaders and the general public for their good works. As one newspaper pointed out in 1885: “The society is doing noble work among the poor, sick, and distressed, and its efforts should be encouraged in every way possible.” As an example of its activities in 1897, the Hebrew Benevolent Society spent over $2,000 for “the relief of the poor and needy.” While a secular organization, the Hebrew Benevolent Society upheld Jewish traditions and Yiddishkeit, like supporting Succoth, the feast of booths, and encouraging members to attend holiday services at Temple Beth Emeth in 1918. <a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_edn4">[4]</a><br /><br />B’nai B’rith, the first national Jewish secular organization, was started in New York City in 1843 by German Jews. A uniquely American institution, it encouraged social interaction to help new immigrants learn how to adapt to America from more seasoned immigrants. The organization walked the tightrope of the American Jewish experience, encouraging members to become real Americans and preserving Jewish identity by sponsoring talks on Jewish subjects. It provided mutual assistance and supported education and moral uplift. aid to widows and children, philanthropy, and patriotism. B’nai B’rith and other mutual aid societies offered death benefits, limited health insurance, brotherhood, and a sense of Jewish identity for immigrants attempting to adjust to an alien environment. Historian Howard Sacher viewed B’nai B’rith as a halfway house to acculturation, but Hasia Diner noted that “B’nai B’rith articulated a conception of Jewishness that existed outside of the synagogues and rabbinic authority, proclaiming according to historian Deborah Dash Moore, a bold new vision of the nature of Jewish identity.’”<a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_edn5">[5]</a><br /><br />Albany boasted two chapters of B’nai B’rith, Shiloh Lodge, founded in December 1853, carried out most transactions in German. The Shiloh Lodge established the day school, B’nai B’rith Academy, in 1866, combining Hebrew and secular subjects. It fulfilled “a uniquely Jewish function,” providing Jewish education, as did other lodges of B’nai B’rith. However, insufficient funding forced the academy to close in 1870. Many of its members came from the German synagogues Orthodox Beth El and Reform Anshe Emeth. It became one of the most well-respected secular Jewish organizations in the city. Members of the Shiloh Lodge joined with other Jewish lodges in 1886 to contribute to the Albany bi-centennial fund, earning the press's commendation for patriotism. As another indication of the lodge’s civic responsibility, members donated to a city-sponsored concert in December 1887. Also, Shiloh Lodge contributed to the construction of a new Albany hospital in 1910. In addition, members participated in recreational activities. In July 1897, for example, “both the old and new went down the river” in a moonlight excursion down the Hudson River to New Baltimore. Members frequently joined the Gideon Lodge on excursions in the summer. Many of Shiloh’s members belonged to other German language societies. Jacob Newburg, who immigrated from Württemberg and ran a hat store on South Pearl Street, belonged to the German Oak Lodge of the Independent Order of Odd Fellows. Julius Levanthal, born in Hanover, became “one of Albany’s foremost businessmen and prominent Jewish resident who served as congregation president of Anshe Emeth and Beth Emeth from 1884 to 1903 ” and belonged to the German language chapter of Free Sons of Israel. <a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_edn6">[6]</a><br /><br />Albany’s German Jews founded or participated in a number of German language societies until World War I. German Jews from congregations Beth El and Anshe Emeth self-identified with the German language and culture. German Jewish synagogues continued to hold separate services in German and English. In Albany, German Jews often assumed leadership roles in German cultural associations. The retention of language became an essential part of the retention of identity for immigrants and their descendants in American society and a barrier to assimilation. German-speaking Jews could easily reinforce their German since there were over fifty German lodges, societies, clubs, athletic associations, and ladies’ societies in Albany in 1910. In fact, when Beth El and Anshe Emeth merged and built a new building Rabbi Isaac Mayer Wise, the leader of Reform Judaism and former rabbi at Beth El and Anshe Emeth, returned to Albany. On May 23, 1889, Wise delivered a speech in German, dedicating the new synagogue of the combined congregation of synagogue Beth Emeth. <a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_edn7">[7]</a><br /><br />Members of the two German Jewish congregations belonged to numerous German language societies. The German Literacy Society, Deutsche Gesellschaft, organized in 1848, remained heavily Jewish. The Literacy Society spawned a German singing society, Albany Liederkranz, in 1849. Rabbi Wise played an important role in both associations. The purpose of the German Literary Society was “to study and spread German literature as well as to extend assistance to newly-arrived German immigrants.” German Jews belonged to half-dozen other societies that included a larger number of non-Jewish Germans, including the Albany Turin Verein, German Harmonia Lodge, and German Oak Lodge of Odd Fellows. This paralleled the larger national trend of Jews of German origin subscribing to German language newspapers and becoming “patrons of German clubs.’ For many Jews, “German culture was an important unifying force.” Prior to the 1890s, many German Jews, especially members of Reform congregations, appeared to identify more closely with non-Jewish Germans than with their brethren from Poznan, Galicia, Poland, Russia, Hungary, or Lithuania. <br /><br /> The continued use of German did not please many of the grown children of the German-speaking immigrants. Younger members of the Shiloh lodge of B’nai B’rith revolted in 1870 and established the English language, Gideon Lodge, on March 17, 1870. Members noted: “while Shiloh Lodge retains our Mother Tongue in its proceedings, we cling to that of the Country we reside in,” reflecting the impact of Americanization. The behavior of the grown sons of German congregations would be repeated by the sons of Yiddish-speaking East European Jews who would spawn the Conservative branch of Judaism, another example of American-born Jews retaining their Jewish identity and seeking acceptance as English-speaking Americans, not as foreigners, not as the “other.” <a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_edn8">[8]</a><br /><br /> Members of the Gideon Lodge, led by Simon Rosendale, played an important role in reaching out to other chapters of B’nai B’rith in 1870 to support the mission of Benjamin Peixotto to Bucharest to help alleviate the suffering of Romanian Jews. Jewish political activist Simon Wolf of Washington requested help from Albany’s B’nai B’rith. The Gideon Lodge pressured President Ulysses S. Grant to appoint Peixotto, president of B’nai B’rith, to the post and raise funds for the mission. Simon Rosendale wrote a condemnation of Romania’s behavior and appealed to the brothers of the organization, Jews and Americans, to donate to Peixotto’s mission. Two years later, in June 1872, the lodge established a committee headed by Simon Rosendale to raise additional funds to support Peixotto’s mission. In June 1903, Gideon Lodge donated funds “for the relief of the Kishineff sufferers,” victims of Russian pogroms against Jews. According to historian Mark Raider, “Kishinev marked a turning point in American Jewish history,” as Jews of whatever religious affiliation, ethnicity, or political beliefs “reacted with horror” at the barbaric actions of the Russian government. Jews rallied to denounce the Russian government, even in Fort Worth, Texas. Over 300 pogroms initiated by the Russian government took place between 1903-1906. The continued pogroms in Russia led the Gideon Lodge to organize a special meeting in November 1905 at Beth Emeth “for the purpose of appropriating means for the relief of the stricken Jews of the Russian Empire.” money was donated to help the survivors of the pogroms. As an expression of their identity as Jews, the Gideon Lodge and other Jewish organizations sought to assist Jews abroad and identified with the plight of Jews in Europe. Although Albany’s Jews had tried to assist Jews in Europe since 1853, the pogroms in Russia created a new determination and feeling of responsibility to help alleviate the plight of Jews abroad. As Mark Raider concluded, events in Russia created a national consensus among American Jews about the role of American Jewish philanthropy. <a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_edn9">[9]</a><br /><br /> The plight of Jews in Eastern Europe once again became a subject of concern during World War I. Hundreds of thousands of Jews uprooted by the war in Eastern Europe fled for safety. Roving armies decimated scores of Jewish communities and impoverished hundreds of thousands of people. From 1914-17, the Russian government forced 600,000 Jews from their homes. American Jews created the Joint Distribution Committee to distribute aid to Jews displaced by the war and help Jews in Palestine. As historian Daniel Soyer concluded, American Jewish assistance overseas became “a defining characteristic of American Jewry.” Albany’s Jews had a personal stake in helping because, as historian S. Joshua Korn noted about the Jewish community of Utica: “there as hardly a person who was not related to a war-stricken family in war-torn Europe and Palestine, for the vast majority of Jews were immigrants of…1890-1914 and their children.” Most of the Jews living in Albany and neighboring communities of Schenectady, Cohoes, and Troy immigrated to the Capital District at the same time as the Jewish residents of Utica. Albany’s synagogues and Jewish organizations, including the Gideon Lodge, felt obligated to assist displaced and hungry Jews in Europe. B’nai B’rith lodges expressed concerns for their brethren in Eastern Europe ever since the plight of Romanian Jews emerged in the late 1860s and early 1870s. By the 1890s, German Jews felt a sense of solidarity with Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe and identified with their deteriorating status in Europe. <a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_edn10">[10]</a><br /><br /> Local relief efforts by Jewish organizations started with the outbreak of the war, but a major drive coincided with President Woodrow Wilson declaring January 27, 1916, Jewish Relief Day. Members of the New York state legislature passed resolutions endorsing Jewish Relief Day. New York Governor Republican Charles Whitman issued his own proclamation asking the people of New York to donate to reduce “the sufferings with which the Jewish people are confronted.” Prominent members of Beth Emeth, who also belonged to the Gideon Lodge, like Simon Rosendale, Albert Hessberg, and Rabbi Max Schlesinger, led the campaign in Albany. All the synagogues and associations, such as Yiddish language and Socialist Local 320 of Workmen’s Circle, socialist labor Zionist Poale Zion, working-class Hebrew Tailor’s Association, middle class and predominately Jewish Washington Lodge of Masons, Ladies’ Auxiliary of Beth El Jacob (Orthodox-Polish), and Ladies’ Radical Society, donated to Jewish relief. The misfortune facing Jews in Eastern Europe created unity in the United States for Jewish groups, regardless of denominational, ethnic, political, or language differences. Helping the Jews of Europe and Palestine united secular and religious groups and reinforced a sense of Yiddishkeit within the Jewish community of Albany and the Capital District. A number of non-Jews donated and or endorsed the campaign, including Republican Mayor Joseph W. Stevens and former governor Irish Catholic Martin Glynn, a Democrat and first Irish Catholic governor of the state. Funds raised went to the Joint Distribution Committee.<a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_edn11">[11]</a><br /><br /> In an article appearing in the <i>American Hebrew</i> on October 31, 1919, entitled “The Crucifixion of Jews Must Stop,” former governor Martin Glynn condemned the “threatened holocaust of human life” [and] “bigoted lust for Jewish blood,” in Eastern Europe. Polish troops killed 40,000 Jews in eastern Galicia between 1919-21, and a mix of Ukrainian nationalists, White Army, and elements of Red forces killed 100,000 Jews in Ukraine, Belarus, Russia, and Lithuania, and 150,000 died of starvation, disease, and exposure as these roving armies devastated at least 150 Jewish communities between 1917-21. Romanian troops killed another 5,000 Jews in Hungary. “Tragedy of Jews Stirs Albanian Hearts,” proclaimed the Albany Argus in October 1919 as the second round of fundraising for the Jews of Eastern Europe began. Gideon Lodge joined with all Jewish organizations, synagogues, and many non-Jews to contribute to the injured and starving. On October 5,1919, members of B’nai B’rith’s lodge donated $150 “for the Jewish War Sufferers…unanimously carried.” Governor Al Smith and Catholic and Episcopalian bishops of Albany endorsed the fundraising and condemned the atrocities. Jews of Albany, including members of the Gideon Lodge, joined with Jews from Troy, Cohoes, and Schenectady on December 7, 1919, at the Palace Theater in Schenectady in a mass meeting to denounce the atrocities in Eastern Europe.<a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_edn12">[12]</a><br /><br /> In the interwar years, B’nai B’rith reached out to the sons of East European Jews, expanding the membership at the local and national levels. It created a youth wing, and young men joined Aleph Zadik Aleph Fraternity. At local colleges, chapters of Hillel attracted younger Jews. By 1940, B’nai B’rith had 150,000 members and became the largest secular Jewish organization. In Albany, the Gideon Lodge supported aid for Jewish survivors of the Holocaust, the relocation of some survivors to Albany, and successfully built B’nai B’rith Parkview Apartments in Albany in 1973 for Jewish senior citizens. Albany’s Jewish Community Council worked with B’nai B’rith to make Parkview a reality. The Gideon Lodge and Gideon chapter of B’nai B’rith women assisted in providing support services for the seniors at Parkview. In the 1990s, the Gideon Lodge welcomed Soviet Jews who settled in Albany and Schenectady and assisted in finding housing for the latest Jewish immigrants to the Capital District. From 1974-1981 at least eighty-one Jews from the U.S.S.R. arrived in Albany. Since 1988 about 1,300 Soviet Jews have moved to Albany. <a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_edn13">[13]</a><br /><br /> While the Gideon Lodge was the longest-lasting fraternal organization in Albany, a number of other associations and branches of national organizations developed between the 1870s and the early 1900s. These organizations suggested the richness of Jewish communal life that” combined ideas of “mutual benefit with social and recreational functions.” On September 15, 1872, the B’nai Mordecai Lodge of Kesher Shel Barzel (Chain of Iron) opened a chapter. While B’nai B’rith initially attracted German Jews and their descendants, KBB, established in 1860, became a primarily Polish fraternal organization. A second chapter, the Capital City Lodge, was also formed, but both agreed to merge in 1894. Free Sons of Israel, started in New York City in 1849, chartered a local chapter on April 5, 1872, Arnon Lodge appealed to German Jews and their descendants. Most of the members of Free Sons belonged to Anshe Emeth and Beth El, and later Beth Emeth. It had a glorious celebration in April 1899 on its Silver Anniversary, with 250 in attendance for dinner, and several hundred more came for the dance. One of the speakers, Simon Rosendale, stressed the charitable purposes of the lodge. Prominent non-Jews recognized the good works of the Arnon Lodge, including Mayor Van Alstyne and Governor Theodore Roosevelt. The Governor praised the members and denounced anti-Semitism. B’rith Abraham, founded in 1844, was one of the first Jewish fraternal societies to offer death benefits to members and their wives. It started as a German and Hungarian Jewish association, although it later accepted Russian and Polish Jews. It also had a strong connection to Beth El and Anshe Emeth. Morris Coplon, its local chairman, led the association when it held its national convention in Albany on August 23, 1896, as 250 members attended the convention. Not surprisingly, Rabbi Max Schlesinger of Reform Beth Emeth delivered the opening prayer and blessing. <br /><br /> The arrival of Polish and Russian Jews after 1870 fostered a new group of fraternal orders. Independent Order of B’rith Abraham, organized nationally in the 1880s, emerged as a Russian Jewish association, and a local chapter was chartered in 1893. It started as an organization of Hungarian Jews but quickly expanded to include Jews from the Russian Empire. By expanding membership, it soon rose to 200,000 members and, for “a brief period in the early 1900s, constituted the largest Jewish organization of any kind in the United States.” Chapters of Sons of Benjamin (1897-1901), Albanian and Capital City lodges of Assembly of Israel ( November 27, 1894, and December 8, 1895), and Young Men’s Montefiore Association (December 26, 1896) were established. Public officials recognized these Jewish societies and invited them to public functions, like having members of B’rith Abraham, Young Men’s Montefiore Association, and Independent Order of B'rith Abraham march in the October 1909 Hudson-Champlain Commemoration. <a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_edn14">[14]</a><br /><br /> East European immigrants voluntarily formed chapters to meet their emotional, social, burial, sickness, and recreational needs. These lodges fostered responsibility, fellowship, and Yiddishkeit. Branches of the fraternal organizations developed in each upstate New York community where enough Jewish men lived to support a lodge---Albany, Schenectady, Troy, Syracuse, Rochester, Binghamton, Utica, Gloversville, Amsterdam, and Poughkeepsie. The most popular was B’nai B’rith, Free Sons of Israel, and B’rith Abraham. Upstate Jewish communities, like Albany, did not support a secular Jewish organization popular in New York City and other large cities---landsmanshaftn, associations of Jewish men from the same city, town, or village in the old country, like the Bialystok Mutual Aid Society. Their functions were similar to fraternal orders but rooted in men, landsmen, from the same community in Eastern Europe. By the 1930s, New York City hosted over 3,000 landsmanshaftn, but this local connection to hometowns did not flourish in upstate Jewish communities, primarily due to the lack of numbers and the anti-Jewish and restrictive immigration laws of 1921 and 1924 that cutoff most Jewish immigration from Eastern Europe. <a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_edn15">[15]</a><br /><br /> One politically motivated fraternal order that originated in New York City found a home in Albany and other upstate Jewish communities---Arbeiter Ring (Workmen’s Circle), a nationwide fraternal and mutual aid society with a Yiddish and Socialist agenda. Founded in 1892, combining socialism, Yiddish culture, and the fraternal organizational structure, Workmen’s Circle became popular with Jews from Poland, Russia, and Lithuania. The organization expressed a secular sense of Jewish solidarity and identified with workers’ rights and the Yiddish language. While usually linked to Jewish communities in larger cities like Boston and New York, Workmen’s Circle found a responsive audience in upstate Jewish communities of working-class Jewish immigrants. It represented an expression of first-generation Jewish identity among immigrants from Eastern Europe through the socialist revolutionary movement in the Russian Empire, the General Jewish Workers’ Union, known as the Bund. The Bund combined class struggle “with loyalty to the Jewish people---indeed, to Jewish peoplehood.” In the United States, Workmen’s Circle expressed the ideas of the Bund but widened its appeal by stressing a Yiddish-based socialist and cultural movement. By combining Yiddish culture, socialism, mutual aid society benefits, and brotherhood, it created an attractive mix “making it the longest-lived and most effective of all East European fraternal orders”<a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_edn16">[16]</a><br /><br /> Member of Workmen’s Circle discussed Yiddish literature, listened to Yiddish language speakers, and invited Yiddish theater groups from New York City to give performances at local theaters. As the historian of the Utica Jewish community concluded: “The Arbeiter Ring…had a profound influence on a large section of the Jewish population in Utica during the first quarter of the twentieth century.” For the immigrant generation, it played an important role in the lives of Jews in Albany, Schenectady, and Troy. Workmen’s Circle appealed to industrial workers, peddlers, tailors, and small merchants attracted to the secular Yiddish culture it promoted. Some came to discuss contemporary political and economic issues like the arrest of four Socialists in Albany on August 26, 1917, for handing out a four-page pamphlet that the courts decided violated the Espionage Act. Others came for a general discussion of socialism in Yiddish or for a non-political discussion of Yiddish writers, like Sholem Aleichem. Wherever there was an immigrant Jewish community from Eastern Europe---Poughkeepsie, Albany, Troy, Schenectady, Utica, Syracuse, Rochester, and Buffalo, there was a branch of the Arbeiter Ring in the first quarter of the twentieth century. Jewish radicals of whatever political orientation could mingle in the fraternal order of Workmen’s Circle. <a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_edn17">[17]</a><br /><br />Some communities, like Albany, Schenectady, Utica, Rochester, and Buffalo, organized Yiddish language Folk Shules in the 1920s and 1930s. The afternoon schools taught Yiddish, Jewish history, and socialism. Sadie Flax, for example, remembered learning Yiddish and socialism at the Workmen’s Circle school in nearby Schenectady. The schools passed on the passion for Yiddish and socialism to another generation, this time to American-born children of Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe. Workmen’s Circle ran their school out of their building on Ash Grove Place. The Albany school ran into the 1940s. The Albany branch of Workmen’s Circle was founded in semi-secret on May 14, 1904, in the home of N. Rosenberg. Orthodox Jews distrusted the organization and discouraged renting space for the organization’s meetings. Members of the Orthodox community destroyed flyers for Workmen’s Circle's meetings forcing it to meet initially quietly and finally meet outside the Jewish neighborhoods in the South End of Albany.<br /><br /> However, the arrival of Jews fleeing the Russian pogroms brought Jews with experience in the Russian radical movement that quickly embraced Workmen’s Circle leading to a second branch, Number 122, in 1907. It became popular with new immigrants, and its meeting place on 67 South Pearl Street became “the modern Yiddish culture center of the city.” Residents flocked to the concerts and the speakers. Members of the Albany local worked with the Jewish-dominated unions, bakers, and tailors, founding the Bread and Meat Cooperative. Workmen’s Circle worked closely with Jewish bakers to support unionization and the purchase of union-made baked goods. Workmen's Circle assisted the garment workers by raising money for their organizing efforts in February 1920 and joining in the campaign to persuade consumers to only patronize stores that sold unionized goods. In 1914, the two locals merged into Branch 320. Workmen’s Circle started fundraising for Jewish relief to help Jews in Europe in 1914 and participated in drives in 1916, 1918, and 1919 for Jews displaced by the war. The Albany chapter contributed $100,000 for the defense of the four Socialists arrested in August 1917 for violating the Espionage Act. According to the local press, the Albany local’s reach extended to Jewish communities in Troy, Hudson, Gloversville, and Glens Falls. <a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_edn18">[18]</a><br /><br /> In 1909, the organization purchased land for a cemetery. Although Workmen’s Circle was secular, it agreed with the Orthodox that only Jews, and not Gentiles, could be buried in a Jewish cemetery. It took “a heated discussion, lasting several weeks,” before the majority of members rejected burying non-Jews. Two of the most interesting monuments in the cemetery are written in Yiddish. One, to Harriet Thuroff, “Thy memory shall be the guiding star in our struggle.” Rose Halpert’s includes a commemoration of her activism in the revolutionary workers' movement. Children and grandchildren of the original members of the Workmen’s Circle are still being buried in the Albany Cemetery. <br /><br /> A faction of Workmen’s Circle broke off in 1929 to form International Worker’s Order, affiliated with the Communist Party. An Albany branch, Jewish Peoples’ Fraternal Order, seceded from the local Workmen’s Circle, and in retaliation, Workmen’s Circle refused to bury the Communists in their cemetery. During the McCarthyite period, the federal government dissolved the political movement as a Communist front in the early 1950s and seized the cemetery but eventually returned it to the JPFO. Historian Maurice Isserman argued: “regardless of its political affiliation, JPFO played a significant and largely positive role in the lives of tens of thousands of American Jews.” Isserman appears correct since the JPFO and its broader organization, International Workers Order, sponsored Yiddish language schools and Yiddish cultural activities, a more radical version of Yiddishkeit. <a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_edn19">[19]</a><br /><br /> Another national fraternal organization founded a chapter in Albany, Farband. Founded in Rochester in 1910, the Farband, also known as the Jewish National Workers’ Alliance, appealed to the same East European working-class immigrant population of the Workmen’s Circle but combined socialism with active support for Zionism, while Workmen’s Circle remained non-Zionist as did JPFO. Farband supported folkshulen (Folk Shuls) but promoted both Yiddish and Hebrew, Jewish cultural activities, and the same benefits as other fraternal orders. A chapter of Farband was established in Albany in 1912. Farband established the city's first secular Yiddish school, one of the earliest in the country.<br /><br /> In December 1912 and January 1913, Farband held its national convention in Albany. Opening on December 28, 1912, the conference discussed improving the conditions of Jewish workers, modern Yiddish education, and improving insurance coverage. It met at another recently created Jewish cultural institution, Hebrew Educational Institute, on Franklin and South Ferry Streets, in the heart of Albany’s Jewish neighborhood. Farband advocated for Jewish workers’ rights, socialism, and Zionism and later became linked to socialist labor Zionism in Palestine. At the founding, Farband included Socialists-Territorialists Zionists who believed in a Jewish homeland, including areas outside of Palestine. Albany’s chapter also organized Farband chapters in other communities like Schenectady. As historian Moses Rischin concluded: “socialism was Judaism secularized” Combining an emphasis on Yiddish and Hebrew along with socialism provided another vision of Yiddishkeit for Jewish immigrants. <a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_edn20">[20]</a><br /><br /> Several occupational groups unique to the Capital District acted as mutual aid societies. The two most common occupations of recent immigrants from Eastern Europe were tailors and peddlers. This had been true for German immigrants earlier since the membership of Beth El, Beth El Jacob, and Anshe Emeth in the 1850s were primarily peddlers. Recent immigrants formed the Jewish Peddlers Association in Schenectady in 1916 “for the promotion of intellectual, social, and recreational activities for the families of its members.” Members listened to Yiddish language speakers, and the talks attracted larger audiences, becoming community events.<br /><br /> Earlier, a group of eight tailors in Albany on August 31, 1891, organized the Hebrew Tailors Association “for mutual benefit and benevolent purposes.” Apparently, an Albany Jewish tailor fell ill and had no means to take care of himself, and this motivated the creation of a society to help fellow workers. It would take care of the sick, help those in distress, and provide for the burials of members. It became a well-respected local Jewish organization and even marched in the Hudson-Champlain Commemoration in October 1909. Hebrew Tailors joined in fundraising for all the Jewish causes, like Jewish Relief Day in January 1916 and a second round of fundraising in March 1916. Tailors also held recreational activities for its members. For example, one hundred couples participated in a ball on February 24, 1902, “and it was the early hours of the morning before the dance broke up.” The association sponsored annual dinners and annual balls. At the ball on January 3, 1910, “there was a good crowd present and most enjoyable time was had.” <a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_edn21">[21]</a><br /><br /> Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe brought radical traditions, and as Moses Rischin noted, socialism became secularized Judaism. Both the Socialist parties in Albany and Schenectady had Jewish sections. There was no coincidence that the Albany Socialist Party had its headquarters on South Pearl Street, in the heart of the Jewish neighborhood. For the immigrant generation struggling to find their place in American society and primarily working class, socialism appealed to their sense of solidarity, Jewish ethics, and the Jewish quest for justice. In Albany, Jews were peddlers, bakers, tailors, garment workers, and cap workers. There were a number of cap factories in Albany, and “almost all of whose workers were Jewish.” Failed efforts to unionize further inflamed their resentment of economic inequality. Jews from the Russian Empire identified with the Jewish branch of the Russian Social Democratic Party---Bund, a Yiddish language workers movement among Jews in Poland, Belarus, Lithuania, Ukraine, and Russia. Working-class Jews felt exploited in America and brought their loyalty to socialism to the United States. A small number later split off to endorse the more radical Communist Party. <a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_edn22">[22]</a><br /><br /> However, there was another radical alternative, <i>Jerminal</i>, the Albany Jewish anarchist group active between 1900 and 1920s. Jewish anarchists would sometimes meet with their Italian immigrant comrades from Schenectady over tea and pastry to discuss the revolution. Leon Malmed, a local deli owner, played an active role and developed a close relationship with Emma Goldman. “Red Emma” spoke several times in Schenectady and Albany between 1906-1917, with the help of Leon Malmed, her sometime lover. Emma would deliver talks in Yiddish, English, and Russian. A handbill in Yiddish, for example, advertised, “Emma Goldman, the very popular speaker…will speak in Albany…first of April 1906.” Albany’s police interfered on April 1, 1906, breaking up the talk by Goldman. Leon Malmed introduced Goldman, but her critique of the American government angered a police sergeant who ordered the meeting stopped. The “audience was composed entirely of foreigners,” meaning Jewish immigrants from Russia. For a small number of Jews from the Russian Empire, anarchism seemed another way to express secular Jewish values in Yiddish. Jewish anarchists based their positions on Jewish ethical norms, but they rejected Judaic religious rituals. One of the problems for Jewish anarchists, whether in Albany or New York City, was working-class Jews agreed with their critique of inequality that stemmed from Jewish values but opposed the anarchist attack on Jewish religious rituals, severely limiting the growth of <i>Jerminal</i> and other Jewish anarchist groups. <a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_edn23">[23]</a><br /><br /> Zionism became another way for Jews in Albany to preserve their identity as Jews. In 1898, Jews in Albany, Troy, and Schenectady formed chapters that sent delegates to the 1898 Federation of American Zionists convention. Representatives from the Albany, Troy, and Glens Falls chapters attended the 1900 convention. A chapter of Choveve Zion (Lovers of Zion) began at the same time. A Zionist fraternal order, Max Nordau Lodge, opened on September 16, 1900, and associated with the Federation of American Zionists. Albany Zionists actively purchased Jewish National Fund stamps. Another Zionist group, also affiliated with FAZ, Sons, and Daughters of Zion, expanded “ intensive and widespread Zionist activities.” They became active in fundraising for displaced Jews in Europe during World War I. and sponsored lectures and concerts to raise money for Palestine and promote Zionism. Religious Zionists established a chapter of Mizrachi in 1914 after Mizrachi leader Meyer Berlin visited Albany. Socialist Zionists had several options, like supporting Zionism while enrolled in the Jewish branch of the Socialist Party or Workmen’s Circle. They could join the group of Socialist Territorialists Zionists or the chapter of Poale Zion (Workers of Zion) that started a chapter in Albany in 1906 and supported their fraternal association, the Farband Labor Zionist Order. Zionists held regular memorial services to honor the death of Theodore Herzl. In 1916, for example, Sons and Daughters of Zion sponsored an event at the Orthodox (Polish) Beth El Jacob synagogue with speakers in English and Yiddish. All the Zionist groups joined in the campaign for Jewish war relief for the Jews of Europe and Palestine in 1916, 1918, and 1919.<a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_edn24">[24]</a><br /><br /> On June 3, 1920, 4,000 Jews from Albany, Schenectady, Troy, Amsterdam, Gloversville, Hudson, Glens Falls, and Cohoes marched down South Pearl Street in Albany’s Jewish neighborhood in support of the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine. Carrying banners in English and Hebrew with the Zionist flag, six-pointed blue star, and stripes on a white background, the Stars and Stripe's marchers walked past “shops and residences along the route” decorated with the Zionist flag as Jews celebrated the end of Ottoman rule in Palestine, Balfour Declaration, and “the restoration of Israel.” Marchers represented all of the Jewish societies “and congregations of virtually every city near Albany.” A band played Hatikvah. This became the largest Jewish parade in the history of the city. Speakers included Governor Al Smith (Democrat), Mayor James Watt (Republican), and former governor Martin Glynn as Albany’s Catholics and Protestants endorsed the creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. The massive parade for Zionism and a Jewish homeland in Palestine showed that Zionism and Americanism were not in conflict. American political leaders, Democrats, and Republicans supported Jewish nationalism. Zionism became another manifestation of how Jewish immigrants and American-born Jews maintained their identity as Jews in Albany and America. <a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_edn25">[25]</a><br /><br /> Jews also joined national fraternal orders. There were Jews in the Masons, Knights of Pythias, and Odd Fellows, often in predominately Jewish chapters in Albany and Schenectady. This got repeated as middle-class Jews formed their own chapters of the Odd Fellows and Masons in Syracuse or the Jewish lodges of the Masons and Odd Fellows in Utica or Knights of Pythias, Odd Fellows, and Masons in Buffalo. By joining these societies, “Jews sought equality and integration into America, and at the same time continued to behave as Jews.” These secular lodges enabled Jews to socialize with fellow Jews “without the tumult of synagogue politics and congregational bickering.” Predominately Jewish lodges contributed to Jewish causes, like Jewish war relief in World War I or support for creating Jewish community centers. This became another outlet for Jews wanting to preserve their identity as Jews but outside the context of synagogues and denominational differences within Judaism. <a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_edn26">[26]</a><br /><br /> Women’s associations performed the same functions and provided the same communal responsibilities to preserve Jewish identity. As Hasia Diner noted, women’s associations “served the same religious and communal needs, and most members came from the same families.” Furthermore, “these societies saw themselves as agencies for the preservation of Judaism in its full sense.” They took care of the sick and acted as burial societies for women. The Ladies or Women’s Benevolent Society took on charitable functions. By the late 1860s, Purim balls became a vehicle for fundraising for charity, and Albany’s women sponsored one in 1869. Women played a major role in fundraising fairs for the Jewish Home for the Aged in 1880, primarily members of the German Beth El and Anshe Emeth congregations. In the 1880s, the Ladies Sewing Society sponsored entertainments to raise funds to help the poor in the Jewish community, such as for example, the one organized in 1883. The actions of German Jewish women in Albany fit the pattern of “German Jewish volunteer women being particularly active in organizing and raising funds for social welfare programs” to help poor members of the Jewish community.<a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_edn27">[27]</a><br /><br /> Reacting to the male B’nai B’rith, a group of Jewish women created a women’s equivalent in 1845 in New York called the United Order of True Sisters (Unabhangiger Orden Trueue Schwestern) that emphasized social, educational, and philanthropic activities. A predominately German-Jewish organization, Anshe Emeth and Beth El members established an Albany chapter, Abigail Lodge, on August 4, 1857. German remained the language of meetings until 1905. Women organized the Clara de Hirsch Society in 1890 “for the purpose of giving aid to the poor and needy” within the Jewish community. In 1893, a national women’s organization, the National Council of Jewish Women, was established for educational, social, and philanthropic purposes. Local women established a chapter on December 8, 1895, and by 1903 it had 125 members. In Albany, the chapter concentrated on religious education for the children of East European immigrants, and after World War I, on settling displaced East European Jews on farms in southern Rensselaer County. Young Jewish women in Albany founded a chapter of the YWHA in December 1915, sponsoring athletic and educational activities and dances at the Albany Yacht Club, where young people socialized. Merging with the YMHA in 1925, they formed the Jewish Community Center. According to historian Howard Sachar the Jewish community center movement “translated Judaism and Jewish identity into the widest ambit of Jewish civilization.” <a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_edn28">[28]</a><br /><br /> A national women’s Zionist organization founded in the 1920s as an arm of the Zionist Organization of America, known as Hadassah, established an Albany chapter in 1923 to support medical, vocational, and land reclamation projects in Palestine. Linked to labor Zionism, Pioneer Women, founded in 1921, established an Albany chapter in the 1920s. These women’s organizations acted to reinforce Jewish identity in Albany and provided different options for women to contribute to the community. They bridged the gap between becoming American and remaining Jewish. Zionism became an integral part of Jewish identity in Albany by 1920 for Jews of East European origin and by 1929 for Jews of German origin. <a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_edn29">[29]</a><br /><br /> These organizations helped Jews preserve their identity and provided mutual aid, social support, and ”camaraderie in times of joy and comfort in times of trouble, illness, and death.” Jewish organizations raised funds for philanthropy, social services, education, and maintaining Jewish institutions. As a small religious and ethnic minority in American society, Jewish organizations allowed Jews to retreat into an “exclusive social and cultural space.” Ever since Jews arrived in America in 1654, Jews have faced the same question---how to maintain Jewish identity in an overwhelmingly Christian society and cling to separate ethnic, religious, cultural, and social values as they navigated between Americanization and remaining Jewish. Jewish associations were bottom-up institutions created to serve the needs of immigrants and their children, searching for options to preserve Yiddishkeit while becoming American. Each individual Jew decided on their commitment to Judaism or to a Jewish identity outside of synagogue membership. Every commitment to religion and ethnic identity was voluntary for Jewish immigrants and their descendants. Howard Sachar’s comments on the Jewish Center movement suggested one of the several ways Jewish immigrants and their descendants found creative methods to reinvent their Jewish identity in secular mediums. Jewish organizations expanded Jewish civilization and constantly reinterpreted the meaning of Yiddishkeit for Jewish immigrants and their descendants. These institutions allowed Jews to maintain their identity as Jews outside of the communal politics of synagogues and the conflicting interpretations of Judaism. <a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_edn30">[30]</a></div><div><br /></div><div><b><br /><span>About the author: Harvey Strum is a history and political science professor at Russell Sage College in Troy and Albany. His most recent publications include: <i>America’s Mission of Mercy to Ireland, 1880</i>, New York History, 2018; <i>Schenectady’s Jews, Zionism</i>, New York History Review, 2019, 2020, 2021.</span><br /></b><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 26.666664px; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;"><b> </b></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 26.666664px; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;"> </span></p><div>Bibliography<br clear="all" /><hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" /><div id="edn1"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_ednref1" name="_edn1" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.333332px;">[1]</span></span></span></a> <span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Ewa Morawska,<i> Insecure Prosperity: Small-town Jews in Industrial America, 1890-1940 <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), 135.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn2"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_ednref2" name="_edn2" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.333332px;">[2]</span></span></span> <span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Hasia Diner, <i>A Time for Gathering: The Second Migration, 1820-1880 </i>(Baltimore and <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), 87; S Joshua Korn, <i>The Jewish <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Community of Utica, 1847-1948 (</span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">New York: American Jewish Historical Society, 1959), <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">40; Max Schlesinger and Simon Rosendale, “A History of the Jewish Community of <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Albany, 1836-1910,” in <i>Beth Emeth Yearbook, 1910 </i>(Albany: Beth Emeth Congregation, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">1910), 69.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn3"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_ednref3" name="_edn3" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.333332px;">[3]</span></span></span> <span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Diner, <i>Time for Gathering, </i>93; Louis Silver, “The Jews of Albany,” <i>YIVO Annual of Jewish <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Social Science </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">(1954), 241; Rabbi Naphtali Rubinger (Ohav Shalom), “Albany Jewry of <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">the Nineteenth Century,” (Ph.D. diss.:Yeshiva University, 1971), 278, For Jewish <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">cemeteries, Walter Zenner and Jewish Historical Society of Northeastern New York, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Guide to Jewish Cemeteries in Northeastern New York </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">(Albany: Jewish Historical Society, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">2003). Covers Jewish cemeteries between Newburgh and Plattsburgh. <o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn4"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_ednref4" name="_edn4" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.333332px;">[4]</span></span></span> <i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Hoffman’s City Register, 1847,</span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">28. The records of the Society of Brotherly Love are in <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">the Archives of Congregation Beth Emeth, Albany, New York; Rubinger, “Albany Jewry,” <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">241. For the Hebrew Benevolent Society-B’nai B’rith dispute, <i>Israelite, </i>November 3, 1854, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">1:17.134; For praise of the Hebrew Benevolent Society, see <i>Albany Argus, </i>September<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">13, 1885. 5; For a yearly report of its actions, <i>Albany Argus, </i>November 2, 1897, 9. As an <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">example of the Hebrew Benevolent Society upholding Jewish traditions see the support <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">for Succoth, <i>Albany Argus, </i>September 20, 1918, 16.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn5"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_ednref5" name="_edn5" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.333332px;">[5]</span></span></span> <span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Howard Sacher, <i>A History of the Jews in America (</i>New York City: Vintage Books, 1992), <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">70; Diner, <i>A Time for Gathering, </i>109-110; Deborah Dash Moore, <i>B’nai B’rith and the <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Challenge of Ethnic Leadership </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">(Albany: SUNY Press, 1981), 7.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn6"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_ednref6" name="_edn6" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.333332px;">[6]</span></span></span> <i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Albany Argus, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">April 5, 1886, 8, <i> </i>April 23, 1886, 8, December 31, 1887, 8; Rubinger, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">“Albany Jewry,” 282; Dr. Max Schlesinger and Simon Rosendale, “A History of the Jewish <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Community of Albany. 1836-1910’ in <i>Beth Emeth Yearbook, 1910, </i>(Albany: Beth Emeth, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">1910), 69. Copies available at the Beth Emeth Archives, New York State Library, both in <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Albany. Also, Sefton Temkin Papers, MS-738, Box 8, folder 6, American Jewish Archives, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Cincinnati, Ohio; <i>Albany Argus, </i>May 23, 1897, 7, July 21, 1897, 7, August 22, 1910, 1 <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">and 6; November 14, 1910, 3; On the educational function of B’nai B’rith, see Diner, <i>A <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Time for Gathering, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">111.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn7"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_ednref7" name="_edn7" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.333332px;">[7]</span></span></span> <span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Schlesinger and Rosendale, “Jewish Community of Albany,” 61.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn8"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_ednref8" name="_edn8" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.333332px;">[8]</span></span></span> <span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Minutes of the Gideon Lodge of B’nai ‘B’rith, Day of the Installation, 1870, Box 1, folder <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">1, Minute Book, 1870-73, Series A, General, 1870-1932. B’nai B’rith, Gideon Lodge, No. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">140 (Albany, N.Y.), MS-377, American Jewish Archive, Cincinnati, Ohio. Also, for German <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">societies and citation in previous paragraph, Silver, “The Jews of Albany,” : 230. Also, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">For citations about Jews and German organizations nationally, Gerald Sorin, <i>A Time for <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Gathering: The Third Migration, 1880-1920 </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">(Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">University Press, 1992), 6. For German societies and German Day in Albany, <i>Albany <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Argus, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">August 22, 1910, 1, 6. There were 37,000 Germans and their descendants in the <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Albany area in 1910. One out of every four people in Albany were German. About 1,500 <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">would have been German Jews and their descendants. The first German Day was held <o:p></o:p></span></p><p align="center" class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">in 1904.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn9"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_ednref9" name="_edn9" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.333332px;">[9]</span></span></span> <span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Minute Book, June 9. 1872 June 7, 1903, November 12, 1905, December 3, 1905, in <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Minute Book, 1899-1912, Series A, General, 1870-1932, B’nai B’rith, AJA. Also, Mark <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Raider,<i> The Emergence of American Zionism </i>(New York: New York University Press, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">1998), 18.”An American Jew” to the editor, <i>Albany Press-Knickerbocker-Express, </i>May<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">21, 1903. For the national organization, National Committee for the Relief of Jewish <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Sufferers by Russian Massacres, American Jewish Historical Society, Center for Jewish <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">History, New York City. Also, see Gary Dean Best, <i>To Free A People: American Jewish <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Leaders and the Jewish Problem in Eastern Europe, 1890-1914 </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">(Westport, Ct: <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Greenwood Press, 1982), 114-40; Cyrus Adler, ed., <i>The Voice of America on Kishineff <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">(Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1904),xvii. Adler cites one meeting in Albany <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">in 1903. For Fort Worth’s protests against Russian barbarism, Hollace Weiner, “Whistling <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Dixie while Humming <i>Ha-Tikvah: </i>Acculturation and Activism among Orthodox Jews in <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Fort Worth,” <i>American Jewish History</i> 53:2 (Fall 2020): 214. (whole article, 211-37<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn10"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_ednref10" name="_edn10" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.333332px;">[10]</span></span></span> <span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Daniel Soyer,<i> Jewish Immigrant Associations and American Identity in New York, 1880-<o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">1939 </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997), 162; Korn, <i>The Jewish <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Community of Utica, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">125. Also, Oscar Handlin, <i>A Continuing Task: The American Joint <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Distribution Committee, 1914-1964 </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">(New York: Random House, 1964), 19-33; Harvey <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Strum, “To Aid their Unfortunate Coreligionists: Impact of World War I and Jewish <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Community in Albany,” <i>Hudson River Valley Review, </i>32:2 (Spring 2016):53-75. Marsha<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Rozenblit and Jonathan Karp, eds, <i>World War I and the Jews: Conflict and <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Transformation in Europe, the Middle East, and America </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">(New York: Berghahn Books, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">2017); Moore, <i>B’nai B’rith, </i>57.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn11"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_ednref11" name="_edn11" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.333332px;">[11]</span></span></span> <span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> For Woodrow Wilson, for example, <i>Albany Argus, </i>24 January 1916; Resolutions of the <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Assembly, 17 January 1916, <i>New York Legislative Record, and Index: A Complete <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Record. From January 5-20 May 1916 (</span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Albany: Legislative Index Company, 1916). 521-<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">23; Proclamation, “For the Relief of the Jewish People in Belligerent Countries in Europe, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">21 January 1916,” <i>Public Papers of Charles Seymour Whitman, Governor, 1916 </i>(Albany:<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">J.B.Lyon Company, 1919), 5; For identification of Beth Emeth members, Congregation <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Beth Emeth, <i>Congregation Beth Emeth Yearbook, 1914-1922 </i>(Albany: Beth Emeth, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">1922), 73-76; <i>Albany Times Union, </i>January 23-28, 1916; <i>Albany Knickerbocker Press, <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">January 23-28, 1916; <i>Albany Evening Journal, </i>January 22-28, 1916; <i>Albany Argus, <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">January 21-28, 1916. Unfortunately, neither the Governor Whitman nor Governor Glynn <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Papers at the New York State Library provide further details on their support for Jewish <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Relief Day.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn12"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_ednref12" name="_edn12" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.333332px;">[12]</span></span></span> <span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Martin Glynn, “The Crucifixion of Jews Must Stop,” <i>American Hebrew, </i>October 31, 1919. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Used a copy at Beth Emeth Archives, Albany, N.Y. Unfortunately, Dominick C. Lizzi, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Governor Martin Glynn. Forgotten Hero</span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> (Valatie, N.Y.: Valatie Press, 2007) does not <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">mention Glynn’s support: <i>Albany Argus, </i>October 19, 23, 1919; Minute Book, October 5, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">1919, in Minutes of the Gideon Lodge of B’nai B’rith, Box 1, folder 3, Minute Book, 1913-<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">32, Series A, General, 1870-1932, B’nai B’rith, AJA. For the mass meeting in <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Schenectady, Broadside in Yiddish and English, “Big Mass Meeting to Protest against the <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Massacres and Pogroms of Jews in Ukraina and Eastern Europe,” Box 1, Rosenthal <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Collection, Rensselaer County Historical Society, Troy, N.Y. For Albany protests, see <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Albany Evening Journal, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">December 16, 1918; <i>Albany Argus, </i>December 12 and 16, 1918; <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">For a protest in Schenectady see Schenectady Jewish Community to Robert Lansing, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">May 16, 1919, Woodrow Wilson Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. For a <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">protest against the pogroms by Jewish soldiers, see Petition by Jewish Soldiers <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Protesting the Treatment of Jews in Europe, folder 260-105, Box 86, Governor Alfred <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Smith Papers, New York Archives, Albany, N.Y.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn13"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_ednref13" name="_edn13" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.333332px;">[13]</span></span></span> <span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">B’nai B’rith Lodge, No. 140,<i>Celebrate the 120<sup>th</sup> Anniversary (1870-1990) </i>(Albany: B’nai <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">B’rith, 1990), 6-7, copy in Historical files of B’nai B’rith, Jewish Historical Society of <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Northeastern New York, Jewish Federation, Albany. “B’nai B’rith Parkview Apartments <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">25<sup>th</sup> Anniversary,” 25<sup>th</sup> Anniversary Scrapbook, Records of Parkview Apartments, Albany, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">N.Y. For a couple of surviving records of the B’nai B’rith chapter in nearby Schenectady, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">see Letter of Introduction for Hershel Graubart, Member of the Junior Order of B’nai B’rith, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">March 19, 1942, given by Hershel to the Agudath Achim Archives, Niskayuna, New York, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">and Aleph Zadik Aleph (Youth Fraternity of B’nai B’rith) Membership Certificate for<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Hershel Graubart, Schenectady Lodge 879, B’nai B’rith. Collections in B’nai B’rith House, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Niskayuna, New York. Agudath Achim is a Conservative synagogue.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn14"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_ednref14" name="_edn14" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.333332px;">[14]</span></span></span> <span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Diner, <i>Time for Gathering, </i>109; Albany Directories for 1902, 1907, and 1915; <i>Beth <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Emeth Congregation Yearbook, 1910, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">69-70; Silver, “Jews in Albany,” 141-43; Rubinger,<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">“Albany Jewry,” 296; Book of Incorporation Papers, Books V and VI, Albany County <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Records Office, Albany, N.Y.; <i>Albany Times Union, </i>June 11, 1903, Also, see “Jewish <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Societies,” <i>Albany Argus, </i>April 15, 1894, 2. For the incorporation papers of Assembly of <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Israel, November 27. 1894, Book of Incorporation Papers, Albany County Records Office. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Copy provided by Maura Cavanaugh, Archivist, August 3, 2021. For Free Sons of Israel<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">and Theodore Roosevelt, <i>Albany Argus, </i>April 20, 1899. For the national convention of <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">B’rith Abraham, <i>Albany Argus, </i>August 22-24, 1896—see 22<sup>nd</sup>, 5 and 24, 9 especially the <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">24<sup>th</sup> for a large story on the convention. B’rith Abraham and the International Order of <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">B’rith Abraham were separate national associations with separate Albany lodges.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn15"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_ednref15" name="_edn15" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.333332px;">[15]</span></span></span> <span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">See for example, Diner, <i>A Time for Gathering, </i>106, 109, 113,125; Sacher,<i> Jews in <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">America,</span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> 198-200; Sorin, <i>A Time for Building, </i>97-98, 115-16; Henry Feingold, <i>A Time for <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Searching: Entering the Mainstream, 1920-1945 </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">(Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">University Press, 1992), 58-59.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn16"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_ednref16" name="_edn16" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.333332px;">[16]</span></span></span> <span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Sorin, <i>A Time for Building, </i>30; Sachar, <i>History of the Jews, </i>197. The surviving records <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">of the Albany and Capital District branches of Workmen’s Circle are in the archives of the <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">YIVO Institute for Advanced Jewish Research in New York City. Records are primarily in <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Yiddish. The author obtained photocopies including of a couple of photos. Also, Silver, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">“Jews in Albany,” 244-45. For Jewish peddlers, see Peddlers Books, Special Collections, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">New York Archives, Albany.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn17"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_ednref17" name="_edn17" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.333332px;">[17]</span></span></span> <span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Kohn, <i>The Jewish Community of Utica, </i>44; Michael Dobkowski, ed., <i>Jewish American <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Voluntary Organizations </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1986), 489-94; Silver, “Jews <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">in Albany,” 244; Stuart Rosenberg, <i>The Jewish Community in Rochester, 1843-1925<o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">(New York: Columbia University Press, 1954), 152-54 on local Workmen’s Circle, which<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">acted like the chapters in Albany. Also, Soyer, <i>Jewish Immigrant Associations, </i>66-70. For <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">a later discussion of Workmen’s Circle, see Tillie Wasserman, to the Executive Secretary, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">May 5, 1964, Workmen’s Circle, Branch 117, Workmen’s Circle Papers, YIVO Institute <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">for Advanced Jewish Research, New York City. For correspondence, primarily in Yiddish <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">on the Workmen’s Circle School in Albany, also see Workmen’s Circle Papers.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn18"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_ednref18" name="_edn18" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.333332px;">[18]</span></span></span> <span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Interview of Sadie Flax with author in 2005. Sadie was the volunteer historian/archivist <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">at Temple Agudath Achim in Niskayuna, N.Y. and former co-president of the Jewish <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Historical Society of Northeastern New York Silver, “Jews in Albany,” 244; <i>Albany Argus, <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">August 28, 1917,10. The case, Pierce v, United States went to the Supreme Court in 1919 <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">and decided in March 1920, 7-2 upheld the conviction with dissents by Brandeis and <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Holmes. Also, <i>New York Times, </i>August 27, 1917, 2, and list of prisoners, Albany County <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Jail and Penitentiary Records, 83, Albany County Records Office. For the reach of the <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Albany chapter to surrounding branches, <i>Albany Argus, </i>March 21, 1920, 26. For the <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">relationship between Workmen’s Circle and Jewish bakers, <i>Albany Argus, </i>March 28, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">1920, 14. For an example, contributions by Workmen’s Circle to Jewish causes, like <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">the relief of Jews in Europe, <i>Albany Argus, </i>March 1, 1916, 5. March 21, 1916, 8, March <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">28, 1916, 8.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p></div><div id="edn19"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_ednref19" name="_edn19" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.333332px;">[19]</span></span></span></a> <span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Silver, “Jews in Albany,” 244; Walter Zenner, <i>Jewish Cemeteries, </i>21, 8, 10. 20; <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Dobkowski, <i>Jewish American, </i>491, 190-92. Maurice Isserman wrote the entry on JFPO.<i><o:p></o:p></i></span></p></div><div id="edn20"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_ednref20" name="_edn20" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.333332px;">[20]</span></span></span> <i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Albany Argus, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">December 28, 1912, 5, December 29, 1912, 3,and January 1, 1913, 8; <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Dobkowski, <i>Jewish American, </i>305-09. Also, <i>Albany Times Union, </i>January 1, 1913; <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Albany Evening Journal, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">December 30, 1912; <i>Albany</i> <i>Knickerbocker Press, </i>December <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">31, 1912; Moses Rischin, <i>The Promised City: New York’s Jews, 1870-1914 </i>(Cambridge,<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">MA: Harvard University Press, 1962, 1977), 166.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn21"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_ednref21" name="_edn21" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.333332px;">[21]</span></span></span> <span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Incorporation Papers, Hebrew Tailors’ Association, August 31, 1891, Albany County <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Records Office; Silver, “Jews in Albany,” 243. Silver spoke to Z. Levitan, the then <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">secretary of the Tailors in 1936; Rubinger, “Albany Jewry,” 297-98; For example, <i>Albany<o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Argus, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">March 1, 1916, 5 for second round of fundraising for displaced European Jews. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Also, March 21, 1916, 5, For recreational events, see <i>Albany Argus, </i>January 4, 1898, 2, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">February 25, 1902, 5 and January 4, 1910, 5. Hebrew Tailors have a significant cemetery <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">for the burials of the children and grandchildren of the original members with a very visible <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">chapel that can be seen from the nearby road. Zenner, <i>Jewish Cemeteries, </i>16.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn22"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_ednref22" name="_edn22" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.333332px;">[22]</span></span></span> <span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Silver, “Jews in Albany,” 243-44.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn23"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_ednref23" name="_edn23" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.333332px;">[23]</span></span></span> <span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Emma Goldman to Leon Malmed. February 1906 and March 18, 1915, Emma Goldman <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Papers, University of California at Berkeley; <i>Albany Knickerbocker Press, </i>April 2, 1906. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Also, see Rischin, <i>Promised City, </i>154-55, 161; Sorin, <i>A Time for Building, </i>110-112; Jeff <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Coplon, ed., <i>Spanning Two Worlds: The Rich and Memorable Lives of Jacob and Bessie <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Coplon </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">(Schenectady: Privately printed, 1997), 3-5, 41. Courtesy of David Coplon to <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">author. “Foreigners” quote taken from<i> Albany Argus, </i>April 2, 1906, 8. For additional <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">correspondence between Goldman and Malmed: Papers of Leon Malmed and Emma <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Goldman, 1899-1982, MC 322; M88, Schlesinger Library. Radcliffe Institute, Cambridge, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">MA. The handbill in Yiddish was in an exhibition at the Albany Institute of History and Art <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">on the Jewish Experience in Albany in the 1990s. Dan Malmed translated the handbill <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">into English from Yiddish. This is taken from of list of objects in the exhibit.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn24"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_ednref24" name="_edn24" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.333332px;">[24]</span></span></span> <span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Silver, “Jews in Albany,” 246; <i>Albany Argus, </i>July 22, 1916, 7; Raider, <i>American Zionism, <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">40-41; <i>Albany Times Union, </i>January 16-19, 1916; “Jewish War Relief,” <i>Tri-City Jewish <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Chronicle, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">(Schenectady), February 11, 1918, 92. Copy available at the New York State <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Library, Albany, New York and American Jewish Archives; Congregation Beth Emeth, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Congregation Beth Emeth Yearbook, 1914-22 </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">(Albany: Beth Emeth, 1922), 73-76. Copies <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">available in the Beth Emeth Archives and the Albany Public Library; Christopher Serba,<i><o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Good Americans: Italian and Jewish Immigrants During The First World War </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> (New York: <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Oxford University Press, 2003), 170; Joseph Rappaport, <i>Hands Across the Seas: Jewish <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Immigrants and World War I </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">(Lanham, MD: Hamilton Books, 2005), 76-77, 81.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn25"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_ednref25" name="_edn25" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.333332px;">[25]</span></span></span> <i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Albany Argus </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">June 2, 3, 4, 1920; <i>Albany Times Union, </i>June 4, 1920.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn26"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_ednref26" name="_edn26" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.333332px;">[26]</span></span></span> <span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Diner, <i>A Time for Gathering, </i>161-62; For a photo of the Zion Lodge of Odd Fellows, a <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Jewish lodge, taken in 1939, White Studio Collection, New York State Museum, Albany, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">New York; For Utica, Korn, <i>The Jewish Community of Utica, </i>58-59; For Schenectady, for <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">example, “Zion Lodge of I.O.O.F. <i>Y’s Owl, </i>April 1925, 10, Copy used at the Schenectady<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">County Historical Society, Schenectady, N.Y. For the Jewish Progressive Lodge of the <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Knights of Pythias, photo of lodge members in 1927 borrowed from the private collection<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">of Leah Cook. Her father was a member.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn27"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_ednref27" name="_edn27" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.333332px;">[27]</span></span></span> <span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Diner, <i>A Time for Gathering, </i>97-98; Hebrew Ladies Sewing Society Benefit, February <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">6, 1883, Pamphlet, Local History Room, Washington Avenue branch, Albany Public <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Library; Sorin, <i>A Time for Building, </i>141. For Jewish women in Schenectady, see, for <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">example, “Jewish Bazaar.” <i>Schenectady Evening Star, </i>May 8, 1903. For fair for the<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Jewish Home, <i>New York City Jewish Messenger, </i>January 30 and February 6, 1880. For <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">the continuing role of Jewish women helping the poor and aged by a contemporary report, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">see: Hortense Barnet, “Jewish Community a Powerful Influence for Good in Albany,” <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Albany Knickerbocker News, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">July 11, 1915, July 18, 1915. These were incredibly positive <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">portraits with photos of German Jewish women and men members of Reform Beth Emeth.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn28"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_ednref28" name="_edn28" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.333332px;">[28]</span></span></span> <span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">For the records of the United Order of True Sisters, Manuscript Group 638, American <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Jewish Archives. Part of the records are in German. Also, for a local branch, see United <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Order of True Sisters Noemi #11 at the Wyner Family Jewish Heritage Center at the New<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">England Historic Genealogical Society in Boston; Rubinger, “Albany Jewry,” 296; <i>Albany<o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Times Union, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">October 13, December 6, 1915, May 35, 1925, March 11, 1976; Sachar, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Jews in America, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">705.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn29"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_ednref29" name="_edn29" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.333332px;">[29]</span></span></span> <span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Silver, “Jews of Albany,” 244-45; Hadassah Region History of the Upper New York State <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Region, 1998, private collection of Dorothy Ganz, Albany. Photos of Jewish women’s <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">organizations are in the Jewish Community files, Special Collections, State University of <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">New York at Albany. Additional materials, such as Y records, are in the files of the Jewish <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Historical Society of Northeastern New York at the Jewish Federation in Albany. Anti-<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Jewish Arab riots in Palestine in 1929 started this change in Reform Beth Emeth. See <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Nelson Fromm, President to Members of the Beth Emeth, August 28, 1929, Beth Emeth <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Archives.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn30"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://C2BD90DA-1C28-4DD8-94FE-582C641E8DD8#_ednref30" name="_edn30" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.333332px;">[30]</span></span></span> <span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Lee Weissbach,<i> Jewish Life in Small Town America: A History </i>(New Haven, CT: Yale <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">University Press, 2005), 242. Also, 269-70 for the preservation of Yiddish based culture <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">in small town America. Sacher, <i>Jews in America, </i>705 for how Jews used secular methods <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">to reinterpret Jewish identity. <o:p></o:p></span></p></div></div></div>DLJhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14674534926004739081noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3330136066649493860.post-57160552554577146062022-06-27T12:07:00.003-07:002022-06-27T12:15:16.897-07:00Reverend J. Josiah Walters<b>by <a href="mailto:slriverguy@aol.com">Richard White</a></b><div><b>Copyright 2022. All rights reserved by the author.</b></div><div><br /><div><div><br /> “The Binghamton audience may not be ready to accept the doctrine Senator Tillman will advance,” according to the Binghamton <i>Press</i> on February 10, 1908. The newspaper did not need to name or identify the “doctrine”—virulent racism- because it preceded and followed the Senator wherever he traveled. Later that evening, his values of hatred and disdain would be presented in such detail that it spurred one resident to take a public stance and refute Tillman’s Jim Crow values. That person was the community’s new A. M. E. Pastor, and his response was a pastoral protest. He was ordained in 1905, and his name was J. Josiah Walters. He was the young pastor of a nearly 80-year-old church in a small city in the Southern Tier of New York on the banks of the Susquehanna River.<br /><br />Senator Benjamin Tillman was a guest orator for the city’s annual Winter Chautauqua held in the Centenary Church, and he was the most polarizing guest speaker ever to be invited. In fact, his usual two-hour oration, entitled “The Race Problem from a Southern Point of View,” hints at the divisiveness he promoted. As he spoke, he emphasized his epitaphs and crude insults which had earned him the nickname “Pitchfork Ben.” For example, <i>The Press</i> on February 11 reported that he incorporated one of the most infamous and common assertions in his speech—that the Negro is but “slightly removed from the baboon.” At another point, he discussed the alleged problem of “nigger children” in integrated schools, according to Binghamton’s <i>Broome Republican</i> on February 11. While many in the audience cheered, anger compelled some members to walk out, giving Tillman a dose of silent contempt. In the aftermath, the need for truth prompted Reverend Walters to carry out a personal response usually called faith in action.<br /><br /> Walter’s powerful letter-to-the-editor of almost 5000 words appeared in <i>The Press</i> a few days later in the February 15th issue. Although he was not in attendance to hear the Senator’s “Tillmanic Tirade,” as he called it in the letter, he had read the coverage carefully in both local papers, thereby gaining more than the gist of the address, which was vituperative and profane. His decisive two-part analysis proved to be successful. First, he would critique the speech’s falsehoods to pinpoint inconsistencies and faulty conclusions, and second, he would review the address based on Scripture. This dual approach proved to be masterful.<br /><br />Walters’ opening set the tone of the letter….” it is high time that the Tillmanic hitherto barren crusade against the American negro end….it manifests failures at every stage.” Just as cogent, he alluded to the role of the Divine in silencing perpetrators like the Senator who “pursue and persevere until militant circumstances, divine and otherwise, compel a sad and irreparable collapse” of hatred and prejudice. Tillman was bound to meet failure in his attempts to “alter the unalterable purposes of God relative to the race at issue.” As the letter reaches its closure, the author incorporates Biblical references to deflate “Pitchfork Ben’s” erroneous view “of the race problem.” He specifically drew attention to Gamaliel, and Balaam, to censure Tillman. In the end, he invited the Senator to study “something very important” in Proverbs, xxxvi, 4-5. Research has not determined if Tillman did this.<br /><br />In 1908, Pastor J. Josiah Walters was a special beacon of light in Binghamton. A United States Senator presented an address based on racism that Walters repudiated with Christian thought and theology.</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><b>About the author: Richard White's articles have appeared in <i>Civil War History, The Journal of Negro History</i>, and other publications.</b><br /><br /> <br /><br /> <br /><br /> <br /><br /> <br /><br /> </div></div></div>DLJhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14674534926004739081noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3330136066649493860.post-88888920831906787762022-04-26T10:19:00.004-07:002023-03-28T07:36:33.683-07:00The Boxer<b>by Michael Mauro DeBonis</b><br />copyright © 2022. All rights reserved by the author.<div><br /></div><div><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in;"><br /></p><br /><br /><div style="text-align: center;">On the sands of the arena, I spill my blood,</div><div style="text-align: center;">‘til I fall, where once I stood,</div><div style="text-align: center;">or blast that man, who blocks the Sun</div><div style="text-align: center;">upon my form, ‘til he goes dumb.</div><div style="text-align: center;">Fragments of mind are punched </div><div style="text-align: center;">from thoughts,</div><div style="text-align: center;">with every blow of thunder-shots.</div><div style="text-align: center;">The storm is beyond our range to hit,</div><div style="text-align: center;">above our ken, where Olympians sit.</div><div style="text-align: center;">Roses wilt from pounding out </div><div style="text-align: center;">of petals red;</div><div style="text-align: center;">the rains paining themselves</div><div style="text-align: center;">to make some flowers dead.</div><div style="text-align: center;">Hearts handled to beat in power and prime</div><div style="text-align: center;">leak out the life of human time,</div><div style="text-align: center;">ending dreams, before they can climb</div><div style="text-align: center;">the blue-arched lens, where stars shine.</div><div style="text-align: center;">I am a man of little coins and of many tears.</div><div style="text-align: center;">I bury my hopes in a copse of fears,</div><div style="text-align: center;">‘til I am beaten dry of years.</div><div style="text-align: center;">My light is what shines upon the ground</div><div style="text-align: center;">at Dawn, when Venus brings her fire ‘round…</div><div style="text-align: center;">Bless the morning bright and the birds’</div><div style="text-align: center;">speech of spirits, set to sound!</div><br /> <br /><br />---Michael Mauro DeBonis, 01-28-2022.</div><div><b style="font-family: Cambria, serif; text-indent: 0.5in;"><i><br /></i></b></div><div><b style="font-family: Cambria, serif; text-indent: 0.5in;"><i><br /></i></b></div><div><b style="font-family: Cambria, serif; text-indent: 0.5in;"><i><br /></i></b></div><div><b style="font-family: Cambria, serif; text-indent: 0.5in;"><i><br /></i></b></div><div><b style="font-family: Cambria, serif; text-indent: 0.5in;"><i>About the Author:</i> </b><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; text-indent: 0.5in;">Michael Mauro DeBonis is a poet </span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; text-indent: 0.5in;">and a historian from Long Island, New York. A graduate of </span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; text-indent: 0.5in;">both Suffolk County Community College (A. A. in Liberal Studies) and SUNY Stony Brook (B. A. in English Literature), Michael’s work first appeared in the </span><i style="font-family: Cambria, serif; text-indent: 0.5in;">Village Beacon Record </i><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; text-indent: 0.5in;">and the </span><i style="font-family: Cambria, serif; text-indent: 0.5in;">Brookhaven Times Newspapers.</i><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; text-indent: 0.5in;"> Michael’s latest work (poetry and prose) may be found in the </span><i style="font-family: Cambria, serif; text-indent: 0.5in;">New York History Review </i><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; text-indent: 0.5in;">and elsewhere. </span><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 1.5in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 1.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 1.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in 0in 0in 1in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p></div>DLJhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14674534926004739081noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3330136066649493860.post-18388480403499688382022-04-26T08:26:00.008-07:002022-04-26T10:26:56.219-07:00 Who Stole Our History?Big Money Heist at Museum in Upstate New York Remains Unsolved<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDfwlX2q74ZzDj3Rbpu6AfzxmsCbCcNIRm9cDrxdoXWYLHuAFGTnnkvd5A1_LYvjVGgzHIjYor4FvH4qVu_NGveQqPgVE1O2IC4ORJYBwa6Ff9eyUKtxL5dcDdwNNol7rMmW0gHHBVqbV7pfgnA7LPcC476XO3udfyVYxmm8cZlEuQGf-QQH5snOxCgw/s512/Carmen%20Basilio,%20circa%201956,%20courtesy%20of%20the%20Associated%20Press..jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><b><img border="0" data-original-height="512" data-original-width="250" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDfwlX2q74ZzDj3Rbpu6AfzxmsCbCcNIRm9cDrxdoXWYLHuAFGTnnkvd5A1_LYvjVGgzHIjYor4FvH4qVu_NGveQqPgVE1O2IC4ORJYBwa6Ff9eyUKtxL5dcDdwNNol7rMmW0gHHBVqbV7pfgnA7LPcC476XO3udfyVYxmm8cZlEuQGf-QQH5snOxCgw/s320/Carmen%20Basilio,%20circa%201956,%20courtesy%20of%20the%20Associated%20Press..jpg" width="156" /></b></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b>Carmen Basilio, circa 1956, <br />courtesy of the Associated Press<br /><br /><br /><br /></b></td></tr></tbody></table><b>By Michael Mauro DeBonis</b><div><b>Copyright © 2022. All rights reserved by the author<br /></b><br /> <br /><br /> On the 5th of November in 2015, a very singular theft took place at the International Boxing Hall of Fame in Canastota, New York (Silkov, 1). The burglar(s) entered through a side window, which they had broken to access the building (Gray, 1). The crime of grand larceny involved the illegal and forced removal of six world boxing championship title belts from American titlists Tony Zale and Carmen Basilio (Gray, 1). <br /><br />Zale called the “Man of Steel,” was the middleweight division’s unquestioned dynamo, in the 1940s, during one of boxing history’s most competitive periods for the 160-pounds weight class (Mueller, 1). Zale was an athlete of impeccable talent, skill, and courage. When reigning world middleweight champion Tony Zale lost his much-venerated crown to the equally legendary fighter from France named Marcel Cerdan in September of 1948, Tony was thirty-five years old and well past his prime (De Cristofaro, 89). He had recently emerged victorious from a horribly brutal and savage blood feud with his archrival, Rocky Graziano, from New York City (De Cristofaro, 87-89). Zale personally hailed from Gary, Indiana, where he was a true blue fan favorite there and elsewhere (De Cristofaro, 87). His three-bout trilogy with former middleweight champ Rocky Graziano, fought between 1946-and 1948 (Mueller, 1), is considered rightly as one of the most barbaric and bitterly contested in the entire modern history of pugilism (De Cristofaro, 87). The inactivity of Zale incurred during his military service in WWII (1942-1946) did much to advance his patriotism but nothing to enhance his athleticism. After World War II, “The Man of Steel” was rusty.<br /><br />But Zale (1913-1997) was no ordinary fighter. After some intensive training and six tune-up fights in 1946 (Editors, BoxRec.Com), he cleared the way for his first meeting with the rough and tumble brawler Graziano, a top-ranked candidate for Zale’s highly-coveted world middleweight crown (De Cristofaro, 87). Graziano unleashed much fire and kayo power on the proud Polish-American champion, severely hurting Zale in their messy and murderous shootout before Tony miraculously rallied back and pounded Rocky senseless to the canvas in round 6 (De Cristofaro, 88).<br /><br />Zale’s second bout vs. Graziano came almost a year later, in July of 1947, resulting in a huge upset and a quite different outcome opposed to their first challenge (De Cristofaro, 94). Both men let loose furious assaults from the opening bell, with Graziano absorbing a reciprocally devastating amount of blood-spilling from Zale. Graziano, however, somehow was able to withstand Tony’s supercharged blows. He successfully countered by unloading a hellacious and deadly barrage, which put Zale into a state of senselessness and hurt, causing a full 10-count against him and putting the middleweight crown on Rocky’s underdog head by way of a technical knockout in six rounds (De Cristofaro, 94).<br /><br />The third Zale-Graziano fight took place on June 10th, 1948, at Ruppert Stadium, in Newark, New Jersey (De Cristofaro, 88). In defending his newly-acquired title, Rocky Graziano came out with his usual blazing attack. Zale, the cool, calm warrior, took a few heavy shots from the bull-like champion, but unlike in their first encounter, Tony did not wilt from Rocky’s fierce combinations (De Cristofaro, 88). Zale successfully avoided most of Graziano’s big haymakers before shrewdly and sharply responding with a highly concussive body and headshots of his own against the Italian-American champion (De Cristofaro, 88). Zale put the rugged Graziano into dreamland in round three and he brilliantly recaptured his world middleweight championship (De Cristofaro, 88). <br /><br />Zale immortalized his legacy and his reputation as the most elite and esteemed middleweight of his era. But after three tremendous battles waged against his New York enemy, Zale’s best days in boxing were all behind him. Zale and Graziano both had physically paid dearly for their three bloodbaths, with each becoming part of boxing’s most sacred legends and lore. Canastota boxer Carmen Basilio would (just a few years later) reach heights in the sweet science as dizzying as Zale and Graziano did.<br /><br />Carmen Basilio (1927-2012) was a feisty and ferocious brawler from upstate New York (De Cristofaro, 125) and a man whose courage and physical durability seemingly knew no bounds (Please see Michael M. DeBonis’ article Carmen Basilio: Thunder from the North-New York History Review, 2020 Edition). The former onion farmer from rural New York State detested long days of hard, mundane work on his family’s onion farm…but early in childhood, Carmen developed a love for boxing, and no one (in or out of the boxing ring) would ever discourage him from his chosen pugilistic destiny. And Carmen had no qualms about forsaking physically arduous work on the onion farm in exchange for what he felt was more productive (yet more physically taxing labor) training in a boxing gym. Carmen loved boxing and training for boxing (De Cristofaro, 125). The whole process of shedding the proverbial blood, sweat, and tears was little trouble for Carmen Basilio, whose work ethic for conditioning himself in preparation for boxing’s brutal warfare was equaled by almost no one (De Cristofaro, 125), with the possible exceptions of Evander Holyfield (in our own time), Tony Zale and Rocky Marciano. <br /><br />After a brief stint in U. S. Marine Corp during the end of WWII, Basilio turned from amateur boxer to professional boxer, in late 1948, as a welterweight (Editors, BoxRec.Com). Basilio would go on to defeat the likes of Ike Williams, Billy Graham, and Pierre Langlois, all top-notch, world-class welterweights (Editors, BoxRec.Com). Basilio had his share of defeats along the way (one of them was against the iconic Cuban sensation and world welterweight champion Kid Gavilan in September of 1953). This highly controversial loss would embolden Basilio’s boxing efforts and increase his self-confidence as a fighter of note. <br /><br />By June of 1955, Carmen Basilio had clearly emerged as the number one (147 pounds) welterweight division world title contender against the lion-hearted super-tough champion from Boston, Tony De Marco (Editors, BoxRec.Com). De Marco was a fearsome and ferocious power-puncher who displayed huge amounts of courage, skill, and durability versus his opponents in squared-circle conflicts. Basilio could match the champion in terms of valor and talent, but certainly not in kayo (knockout) power. What would be the deciding winning factor here against Tony De Marco for Carmen Basilio? Carmen Basilio’s unparalleled physical endurance would prove to be the bout’s prevailing determinant (De Cristofaro, 127). After twelve rounds of unpleasant and absolutely carnal, bloody combat between De Marco and Basilio, Basilio would take De Marco’s world welterweight crown by knockout (De Cristofaro, 127). He would repeat this feat against De Marco in defense of his title by scoring an impressive but hard-earned knockout over his valiant New England rival (De Cristofaro, 127).<br /><br />In 1956, Basilio lost his world welterweight title to the very skilled warrior, Johnny Saxton, a courageous and classy American boxing stylist (Editors, BoxRec.Com). But the champion (Basilio) dominated his challenger throughout their meeting, and Carmen was removed from his welterweight championship, via a hotly contested and spurious 15-round points verdict, in Saxton’s favor (De Cristofaro, 127). Before the year was up (in September of 1956), Carmen would brutally kayo the champion in their rematch, in round number nine, to recapture his world welterweight throne (De Cristofaro, 128). The Basilio-Saxton rubber match (3rd bout) would be fought in February of 1957 (Editors, BoxRec.Com). The indomitable Basilio scored a huge knockout victory over welterweight champion Johnny Saxton in just two rounds (De Cristofaro, 128). Carmen was truly the unmitigated ruler of his welterweight division and now he viewed the brilliant Sugar Ray Robinson’s undisputed world middleweight title as potential and personal quarry (De Cristofaro, 128). <br /><br />The undeniably resilient and superbly brave Carmen Basilio and the lightning-fast and ultra-intelligent Sugar Ray Robinson would brutishly clash twice in their respective professional boxing careers (De Cristofaro, 128-129). The relentlessly punching brawler Basilio and the master technician and fight strategist Robinson’s first heavily bloody battle went (in September 1957) the full 15-rounds, with Carmen withstanding Sugar Ray’s brutish fistic onslaughts and Basilio convincingly outpunching the middleweight kingpin on the inside and to his body. Basilio scored a spectacular and legitimate split-decision points victory over the graceful, devastating, and highly-determined Robinson. Basilio’s terrific physical constitution and his unceasing and fiendishly intensive work rate, combined with his regal raw courage, simply overwhelmed Robinson’s well-schooled ducking, slipping, and wicked combination punching. It was a very memorable meeting waged between two all-time boxing greats, and their second and final meeting would be no less esteemed than their first.<br /><br />On March 25th, 1958, the Basilio-Robinson rematch took place (Editors, BoxRec.Com). With added incentive and in better physical condition, Robinson superbly out-boxed the perpetually pugnacious and gallant-spirited Italian-American champion. Basilio withstood non-stop viciousness from his iconic and single-minded challenger, Robinson. Sugar Ray avoided most of Basilio’s bull-like rushes and successfully counter-punched Carmen at long-range, landing countless stinging and wicked head and body shots. In round 6, Sugar Ray landed a terrific uppercut to the champion’s left eye, causing much damage and bleeding (De Cristofaro, 128). Carmen’s eye rapidly swelled closed (De Cristofaro, 128) and Basilio, ever the brazenly nerved champion, fought courageously on for 9 more rounds until the bloodbath concluded (De Cristofaro, 128). Basilio, for his part, managed to give his stalwart challenger an absolutely carnal and wicked body attack, inflicting heavy damage to Robinson’s quite-chiseled midsection and even his head. Despite being blind in one eye, Basilio kept the fight extremely close, losing his world middleweight title narrowly to Robinson via a split-decision victory (De Cristofaro, 128-129). Although a rubber match was forthcoming between Carmen Basilio and Sugar Ray Robinson, history decided against this possibility. The two boxing dynamos were never to meet in the ring again (De Cristofaro, 129).<br /><br />Basilio (in his later years) suffered two horribly brutal knockout losses to the super iron-strong Utah brawler, Gene Fullmer (De Cristofaro, 129). They were the only knockout losses in Carmen’s entire fabled and prosperous career (De Cristofaro, 129). But they are revealing to historians of the sweet science in several ways. After Basilio’s last bout against Robinson, Carmen’s best days in boxing were gone. It also shows boxing students that, although Basilio was outweighed and much smaller in comparison to Fullmer, he was still athletically capable of giving his opposition severely hellacious physical abuse. Carmen could not match Gene Fullmer in size and punching power, but he did equal Gene in terms of elite athletic durability, talent, and bravery. Fullmer was a former world middleweight champion himself, and he was naturally larger and heavier than Basilio, who was much more of a natural welterweight. It is in boxing’s welterweight division that Carmen Basilio excelled best. We will never forget his superlative achievements, or the absolutely stellar ones of Tony Zale, his mythic and dynamic middleweight predecessor. <br /><br />The last bout of Carmen’s thrilling and highly revered career came against reigning world middleweight boxing champion Paul Pender on April 22nd, 1961 (Editors, BoxRec.Com). The rugged New Englander outpunched and floored the aged Basilio to retain his title via a 15-round unanimous decision (De Cristofaro, 131). It was the only time Carmen hit the canvas during his long career. Basilio retired subsequently following his loss to Pender. But he had earned three world titles in two of the most competitive weight classes in boxing, Herculean feats of undisputed brilliance not easily achieved by anyone.<br /><br />Tony Zale, too retired from the fight game shortly after suffering a twelfth-round knockout loss to his middleweight title challenger, Frenchmen Marcel Cerdan (De Cristofaro, 98). Zale was badly faded following his grueling three-bout vendetta versus Rocky Graziano. However, the exceptionally valiant and totally adept Marcel Cerdan was at his athletic and pugilistic peak. Cerdan was able to outbox and outhustle Zale, despite Tony giving the French stylist a very conspicuous black eye in the action of battle. Zale’s body and strength may have been ground down to dust by his dignified conqueror, but Tony’s lion heart remained firmly intact, fighting for his championship until he could no longer stand. The former champion Zale did not insult Cerdan in any way, as he gallantly began his well-deserved retirement. <br /><br />In one of humanity’s most savage and feisty sports, Tony Zale spectacularly acquired two world titles in boxing’s most hotly-contested weight class. Zale had earned and defended his crown against many of the best middleweights who had ever lived, and he had beaten them soundly. Like Al Hostak, Georgie Abrams, Fred Apostoli, and Rocky Graziano. When Zale pulverized the super-punching Graziano to regain his world middleweight throne in 1948 (their rubber match), Zale had become the first boxer to regain the middleweight championship of the world since Stanley Ketchel accomplished the task four decades earlier, with Ketchel’s 1908 knockout win over Billy Papke (De Cristofaro, 88). This was only the second time in boxing history that such a mystifying and backbreaking win had been successfully brought to fruition in the world's middleweight ranks (De Cristofaro, 162).<br /><br />Since 2:45 a. m. of November 5, 2015, the suspects of this major burglary remain at large and unidentified by New York State and Federal law-enforcement authorities (Gray, 1 and Krull, 1). After hours of operation, the thieves shattered a side window to enter the International Boxing Hall of Fame when the building was unoccupied (Gray, 1). The intruders purportedly took advantage of weak security measures at the IBHOF when they struck, such as the lack of any onsite security guards and lack of any closed-circuit video surveillance systems (Silkov, 4). The thieves then approached and smash the glass showcase, which housed the six stolen world championship boxing belts (Gray, 1). The robbers swiftly exited the IBHOF before the police showed up onsite two minutes later, responding to the museum’s burglar alarm (Mueller, 1). <br /><br />Four of the missing world title boxing belts belong to the Basilio family, and two of them belong to the Zale family (Krull, 1). The belts are adorned and studded with various jewels and precious metals, and their supposed combined monetary value is estimated to be $300,000.00 or greater (Mueller, 1). It is (therefore) factually correct to say this specific theft is the most expensive one involving boxing memorabilia ever (Mueller, 1). Criminal investigators have also described this reptilian heist (digging into the case) as the product of very seasoned and organized burglars (Mueller, 1). Five of the six stolen boxing belts are all original Ring Magazine ones (Gray, 1), which means their individual artistic craftsmanship is both extremely impeccable and wholly nuanced. The Ring boxing belts are masterpieces of human design and handiwork.<br /><br />In all the thirty-plus years of the IBHOF’s history, the nefarious suspects who committed the crime successfully executed the only attempted heist there (Gray, 1). The number of culprits involved in the huge left is still being debated among law enforcement officials investigating the crime (Gray, 1). The boxing belts are not just highly significant historical objects. They are all very personal family heirlooms. “They [the belts] are our family heritage,”’ said Haley Zale, Tony’s niece and the Zale family spokesperson (Mueller, 1). Haley Zale has stoically and sharply helmed a global “Bring Back the Belts” effort (Mueller, 1). Ms. Zale will not let the public forget of the crimes committed against her family and the Basilios. Why should we then let them pass from our minds and hearts, as well?<br /><br />The International Boxing Hall of Fame is the fight game’s most sacred and golden shrine. Despite financial rewards amounting to $20,000.00 dollars, funded by former world heavyweight boxing champion Mike Tyson and other concerned parties (Silkov, 5), leads trickling into investigators have been scarce (Mueller, 1 and Silkov, 7). It is both tragic and ominously ironic that it should be Basilio’s trophies stolen from the IBHOF. Basilio’s life and achievements inspired the founding of the IBHOF in Canastota, New York, Basilio’s hometown (Silkov, 3). Basilio remains Canastota’s most esteemed athlete and one of her favorite sons. <br /><br />From the very beginning, the Federal Bureau of Investigation has been involved in this case, along with the Canastota Police Dept. (Mueller, 1). No arrests have been executed by authorities conducting this investigation thus far (Mueller, 1 and Silkov, 4). When the thieves broke into the IBHOF on November 5, 2015, they stole the most lucrative merchandise housed by the museum (Silkov, 2). Rumors concerning the thefts being the result of an inside job are currently unconfirmed (Silkov, 5). The FBI is determined to locate the perpetrators of the IBHOF 2015 theft, despite the fact that clues regarding this case are so scant.<br /><br /><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjA7P3Z8exNdNYn2bFqwMj135-KNPLTisFP7GtT86pLUOg76uxo2AK4snD0zQ8MW9fNeIlJFpAGzX5RFYPUQhem-u2R7wjt-6pj9g67iFEetpJEPx8qrxYDU8T58-jSuEtqb9MFmVSMoZyF7EmoOQkreQe4gLu2sf0CBacAg5s5p0f0Fs0am3_79Kz55w/s750/%2522The%20Resting%20Boxer,%2522%20Roman%20bronze%20sculpture,%20circa%20300%20BC,%20photo%20courtesy%20of%20The%20Italian%20National%20Museum%20of%20Rome,%202022..jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="750" data-original-width="542" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjA7P3Z8exNdNYn2bFqwMj135-KNPLTisFP7GtT86pLUOg76uxo2AK4snD0zQ8MW9fNeIlJFpAGzX5RFYPUQhem-u2R7wjt-6pj9g67iFEetpJEPx8qrxYDU8T58-jSuEtqb9MFmVSMoZyF7EmoOQkreQe4gLu2sf0CBacAg5s5p0f0Fs0am3_79Kz55w/s320/%2522The%20Resting%20Boxer,%2522%20Roman%20bronze%20sculpture,%20circa%20300%20BC,%20photo%20courtesy%20of%20The%20Italian%20National%20Museum%20of%20Rome,%202022..jpg" width="231" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>The Resting Boxer</i>, Roman bronze <br />sculpture, circa 300 BC, photo courtesy <br />of The Italian National Museum of <br />Rome, 2022<br /><br /></td></tr></tbody></table><br />What remains to be said about this despicable act is that the missing boxing belts represent rewards to two men (Zale and Basilio) that were earned through the literal spilling of their blood. Zale and Basilio’s stellar accomplishments occurred in what could be the sports world’s most savage and carnal of endeavors. But to add insult to vile injury, the criminals behind the IBHOF heist coldly and selfishly stole not only the property of the Zale and Basilio families but also those families’ individual history and memories. The latter matters as much as the first. The robbery at the IBHOF does not erase or subvert Zale and Basilio’s superhuman sacrifices, but it does injure them. This is so, especially considering the corrupt and cowardly way Zale and Basilio’s property was seized, unlike the champions, who had to exhibit the utmost human bravery to gain possession and ownership of their revered trophies. History and the law will judge these crooks harshly, perhaps more than the law. But only history can ever solve this as yet enigmatic riddle.<p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"> Bibliography:<o:p></o:p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; margin-left: 0.5in;">1) S. De Cristofaro, <i>Boxing’s Greatest Middleweights, </i>copyright 1982, <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; margin-left: 0.5in;"> Rochester, New York<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; margin-left: 0.5in;">2) The Editors, <i>BoxingRec.Com, </i>February 25, 2022, <i>www.boxingrec.com<o:p></o:p></i></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; margin-left: 0.5in;">3) Tom Gray, <i>The Ring Magazine, </i>November 10, 2015, <a href="http://www.ringtv.com/"><i>www.ringtv.com</i></a><i><o:p></o:p></i></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 0.75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]-->4)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><!--[endif]-->Melissa Krull, <i>Spectrum News 1, </i>November 18, 2020, <i>spectrumlocalnews.com<o:p></o:p></i></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]-->5)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><!--[endif]-->Richard Mueller, <i>Sports Collectors Daily, </i>November 6, 2017,<i> </i><a href="http://www.sportscollectorsdaily.com/"><i>www.sportscollectorsdaily.com</i></a><i><o:p></o:p></i></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 0.75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]-->6)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><!--[endif]-->Peter Silkov, <i>The Boxing Glove, </i>November 4, 2018, <i>http://theboxingglove.blogspot.com<o:p></o:p></i></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><i> </i></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><i> </i></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><i> </i></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><i>If you have any information regarding this case, please contact the Canastota Police Department at (315) 697-2240, (or) you can contact the FBI’s Buffalo field office at (716) 856-7800. Thank you.<o:p></o:p></i></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><i> </i></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><i> </i></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><b style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><i>About the Author:</i> </b><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Michael Mauro DeBonis is a poet and a historian from Long Island, New York. Mr. DeBonis is dedicated to studying and to learning the history of the great State of New York. A graduate of both Suffolk County Community College (A. A. in Liberal Studies) and SUNY at Stony Brook (B. A. in English Literature), Michael’s work first appeared in </span><i style="text-indent: 0.5in;">The Village Beacon Record </i><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">and </span><i style="text-indent: 0.5in;">The Brookhaven Times Newspapers. </i><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Michael’s latest work (poetry and prose) may be found in </span><i style="text-indent: 0.5in;">The New York History Review </i><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">and elsewhere.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p></o:p></p><style class="WebKit-mso-list-quirks-style">
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</style></div><br />DLJhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14674534926004739081noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3330136066649493860.post-6818970570051766812022-04-19T11:41:00.000-07:002022-04-19T11:41:53.161-07:00The Gibson Train Wreck<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-_6TOGrK8mzU/Tk46eNPPmqI/AAAAAAAAAkA/wcrvsQxdUsA/s1600/wrecj1.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="185" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-_6TOGrK8mzU/Tk46eNPPmqI/AAAAAAAAAkA/wcrvsQxdUsA/s320/wrecj1.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: inherit;"><b>by Maude Ennick</b></span><br /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: inherit;"><b>©2002 All rights reserved by author.</b></span><br /><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: inherit;">Editor’s note: At 5:21 AM on July 4, 1912, the worst rear-end collision in railroading history, at the time, happened three miles east of Corning, NY at the Gibson train station - near today's Corning Country Club. It involved three trains that had left Elmira. Freight train No. 393, passenger train No. 9, and Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Express train No. 11. Just minutes after leaving Elmira, No. 11 rear-ended stopped train No. 9 and the stopped engine of No. 393 in Gibson, New York. The great accident left thirty-nine people dead and eighty-eight injured. Ms. Ennick's great uncles Frank and Henry Roemmelt were among the survivors.</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div>It was beginning to be a beautiful Fourth of July, 1912. Sightseers and daytrippers had boarded trains all the way down the line as far as Brooklyn and Newark bound for the sites of Buffalo and Niagara Falls. On schedule, Delaware, Lackawanna, & Western freight train No. 393 left Elmira, New York at 3.50 and after experiencing engine difficulties it was pulling into the siding area of the Gibson [New York] Station to address the problem. After about twenty of its cars cleared the tracks, a drawhead broke and left several remaining unpowered freight cars stranded on the main line. The conductor quickly threw the signal to warn No. 9 of upcoming trouble and to prevent it from crashing into train No. 393’s cars still on the main line. Gibson Station’s flagman, Edward Lane, posted the warning signals including a “warning automatic semaphore” one mile east of Gibson, and sent a man down the tracks with a red flag to a point a half mile from Gibson. He also posted a “double danger semaphore signal” at 300 yards from the rear of train No. 393.</div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-b7NZIggdCeU/Tk46rRT75LI/AAAAAAAAAkE/kQmSid-_5jQ/s1600/map.gif" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="149" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-b7NZIggdCeU/Tk46rRT75LI/AAAAAAAAAkE/kQmSid-_5jQ/s320/map.gif" width="320" /></a></div><div>No. 9 left Elmira at 4:47AM bound for Buffalo and Niagara Falls with holiday excursionists from Brooklyn, Scranton, Binghamton, and Elmira. The engineer was T. J. Hartnett of Elmira, and the conductor was Howard Staples of Elmira. As Hartnett came into Gibson he saw the warnings, slowed down, and finally came to a full stop. Hartnett found No. 393 in trouble while uncoupling the cars. It was slow work for No. 393 and so Hartnett in No. 9 prepared to help push No. 393’s remaining cars into the siding.</div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div>Shortly after 5:00AM, D. L. & W. Express No. 11 left Elmira carrying the United States mail and more Fourth of July excursionists on their way to Buffalo and Niagara Falls. Engineer William Schroeder held the throttle of the 100-ton engine as it came booming through Big Flats. There was a thick early morning mist rising from the Chemung River.</div></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: inherit;">Simultaneously in Gibson, many passengers on No. 9 had gotten off to stretch their legs and walked along the tracks while No. 9 moved No. 393’s cars to the siding. Down the line at the half-mile warning, Flagman Edward Lane already saw the impending tragedy - No. 11 missed all three warnings and plowed into the back of No. 9, pushing into the back of No. 393.</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-z_Orc7O5sRc/Tk464WkMwsI/AAAAAAAAAkI/ljbfK4LT5oY/s1600/wreck2.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-z_Orc7O5sRc/Tk464WkMwsI/AAAAAAAAAkI/ljbfK4LT5oY/s1600/wreck2.jpg" /></a></div><div>As the day, and days following unfolded; facts and rumors flew. According to reports made by Lackawanna officials, Schroeder was one of their oldest and best-trained engineers. As usual, he was giving “everything he had” to get to Buffalo and Niagara Falls will the mail closely behind No. 9 as he had done repeatedly many times before. Through the straight stretch in Big Flats engineers liked to run 80 and even 90 mph., Schroeder's estimated speed was 65 mph when he passed the first warning and was still at 65 mph when he passed the flagman. He saw No. 9 at 100 yards in front of him. He jammed on the reverse without cutting off the steam. The quick reversal of power was too great, and the train jumped the tracks. The momentum caused the train to be a projectile with only 50 yards to impact. The reversal of power threw Schroeder out of the cab’s window, and he landed on his head and shoulder, and he lay near the tracks as his train shot past him and into the back of No. 9. It ploughed straight through No. 9 demolishing its last three coaches and squeezed together the Pullman cars until “they looked like a closed accordion.” Then it stopped. Schroeder awoke hurt and surveyed the “inferno.” Some passengers and crew were alive and moving. Among the injured passengers from Elmira were Bernard Strauss, Frank and George Roemmelt, Herman Hart, Edna Keigler, and M. H. Taylor.</div></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: inherit;">Mangles bodies lay “in every way.” Schroeder could not speak or move for three hours and then wandered away and walked back to Elmira - a distance of 14-and-a-half miles. Elmira’s undertakers worked all day and night and by 9:00PM, all the bodies were ready for burial. Corning was not in a mood to celebrate the Fourth and quickly cancelled its fireworks display. Rescuers took the living passengers to Corning. The injured passengers were taken to Elmira’s St. Joseph’s Hospital.</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div>William Schroeder lived on the second floor of 1015 Lake Street in Elmira, about 4 blocks from the train yard, and his attending physician reported him to be in a state of “complete mental collapse.” His doctor recommended “complete quiet for many days.”</div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div>When word of the wreck reached the railroad authorities in Scranton, Pennsylvania, investigators began quick journeys to Gibson. Superintendent E. M. Rine [in Scranton] stated that Flagman Lane “is held equally responsible with Schroeder for not properly flagging a train.” Schroeder was responsible for “running past signals.” In his report, Rine stated, “Train No. 9 was composed of seven sleeping Pullmans, a buffet car, and two coaches, and was stopped at Gibson - where a freight train blocked the main line. Edward Lane, flagman of train No. 9, went 2,000 feet with flags and fuses to stop the express train due at the station in a few minutes. He set and lighted the fuses - green in color - meaning ‘caution’ and waited for the train. Lane claimed that Schroeder’s train ‘came at a high rate of speed and shot past him without seeing the warnings.' Lackawanna cited Lane as partly to blame because Lackawanna’s Book of Rules states: Torpedoes shall be used in foggy or stormy weather.”</div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div>Lane said he heard the train coming and expected it to slacken its speed. Officials said Lane failed in his duty by “not placing torpedoes on the tracks to warn the express train.”</div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div>On July 9, the Elmira Star-Gazette reported that the “train had missed its first warning because Fireman Huntley was talking to Schroeder about too much water in the boiler.” They adjusted the boiler, and as Schroeder turned around to talk to Huntley, and the crash came. On July 10, the newspaper reported, “Schroeder’s wife was not home [on July 3] but he was home with relatives.” In the morning (July 3), he repaired the front doorbell to be sure that the railroad's call person could wake him. He left home for [Elmira’s downtown] at 12 noon, was gone for two hours, and then returned home and was with women relatives until 6:00 PM. Then he went to one of their houses for dinner. He came back with them to his house around 7.00 PM. Then he went to someone’s house on Oak Street and came back before 8:30 PM. Around 9:00PM he went downtown again and visited several saloons. The newspaper reported that Timothy Houlihan saw him at 9:30 PM on Lake Street and believed him to be sober. Charles Sharp, a waiter at the Senate Café, claimed he saw Schroeder first at 12 midnight on July 3/4. He believed Schroeder to have taken “two drinks of gin” before 12. Schroeder ordered a steak but “did not drink alcohol.” After, Schroeder went with Sharp to Falsey’s Café. Sharp had a[n] alcoholic drink and Schroeder had mineral water. They were only there five minutes. Then they went to Kelly’s Saloon where they each had another drink (Schroeder had another mineral water). Schroeder supposedly went home around 12:30, but Charles Klapproth, a saloon owner, saw him downtown [on Lake Street] at 12:30 and reported Schroeder as “sober.” On July 11, the Star-Gazette reported that Schroeder returned home between 12:00 and 1:00 AM a few hours before he took his ill-fated run. The railroad call boy came twice, once at 3:00AM and because Schroeder did not respond, again at 4:10AM. Schroeder responded to the second doorbell ring. Sharp said the next time that [Sharp] saw Schroeder was after the wreck and [Schroeder] told him that “the fireman was to blame.” On July 15, the Star-Gazette reported that Schroeder said that he had two drinks of gin for rheumatism in the whole day before the wreck. Schroeder said he was not on Lake Street at 12:30 as he went to sleep at 12:10.</div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div>Schroeder worked 42-and-a-half years for the D. L. & W., and was the engineer of train No. 11 for nine years. He had lived in Elmira for twenty-six years, and before that he lived in Scranton, Pennsylvania.</div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div>On July 16, the newspaper reported the “train had similar problems [the boiler problem] earlier but was working [when it left Elmira].” “They [Schroeder and Huntley] were looking at the foaming water in the boiler and trying to fix the two injectors. It worked for two minutes. Schroeder went out on the running board. Between the mechanical problem and his conversation with Huntley, Schroeder missed the three signals. He did see the rear of No. 9 and pulled the reverse lever thinking he was pulling back the throttle.</div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: inherit;">Schroeder was charged with murder and spent the rest of the summer and fall holed up in his house. The trial was to take place in Bath, New York in November [1912]. The day the trial was to commence it was decided that there was "insufficient evidence" and Schroeder's case was dismissed much to the courtroom's surprise. Schroeder, though not guilty in the eyes of the law, suffered the rest of his life with taunts and jeers.</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div>Today’s major train wrecks in United States are well documented, but in researching incidents of many years ago, the facts are less easily found. The Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) began its work studying railroad train wrecks in 1911 and continued into the 1970's when the NTSB assumed their role. There are only 80 reports for 1912, but the statistics in the report on the New York, New Haven, and Hartford Railroad wreck of October 3rd (Volume 2 File 091) show a total of 13,698 accidents that killed 772 people and injured 15,096. The reports give a good insight into the workings of the railroads in the early 1900s and the fight of the ICC for improvements in operations and infrastructure to reduce the transportation industry’s accident rate.</div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: inherit;">Sources:</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: inherit;">http://www.northeast.railfan.net/Index_ICC_reports.html</span></div><div>Brand, John. Telephone conversion, July 1993.</div><div>Elmira <i>Advertiser</i>, July 5, 1912.</div><div>Elmira <i>Star-Gazette</i>, July 13 -17, 1912.</div></div><div><br /></div></div>DLJhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14674534926004739081noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3330136066649493860.post-49458161983725346132022-01-26T07:54:00.006-08:002022-01-26T08:06:07.006-08:00Aid from Central New York to Ireland During the Great Hunger<p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; margin: 0in;">by <a href="strumh@sage.edu " target="_blank">Harvey Strum</a>, Russell Sage College<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; margin: 0in;">Copyright © 2022 All rights reserved by the author.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"> <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"> <br /><br />“Our only desire being that this little contribution which we are able to make shall be so <br />disposed of as to alleviate, to a great extent as it can, the sufferings of our brethren, the <br />afflicted people of Ireland,” expressed the hope of the Irish Relief Committee of Utica. In <br />1846-47 the people of New York from Erie County to Suffolk County and from Malone to <br />the Bowery rallied to the cause of Ireland. Residents of central New York joined in this <br />statewide and national movement of voluntary philanthropy as the United States emerged <br />as the leader in voluntary international philanthropy. More aid came from New York state <br />than any other state, and more ships sailed from the port of New York City carrying food <br />and clothing than any other city in the United States. American aid became a voluntary <br />people to people movement because President James K. Polk considered foreign aid <br />unconstitutional and would not support a bipartisan proposal in the Senate to appropriate <br />$500,000 to aid the suffering, Irish. This meant the American people had to take <br />responsibility for helping the Irish without leadership from Washington. As a newspaper <br />in Norwich, Chenango County argued: “not only in this town, but every other town in the <br />county, we hope to see obey the call of humanity” because “hundreds are dying daily of <br />starvation in Ireland.” The people of central New York lived up to this responsibility and <br />gave their pennies, quarters, and dollars for the Irish.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/" style="color: #954f72;">[1]</a> <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in;"><br /><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Novelist James Fenimore Cooper, chairman of the Cooperstown and Otsego County </span><br /><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Irish Relief Committee, observed the widespread support of Irish relief: “Widows gave </span><br /><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">their sixpences and shillings, and I never knew a better spirit in the ascendant.” Otsego </span><br /><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">County provided a model of Irish relief efforts in central New York and in the United States during the Great Hunger. Local newspapers published harrowing accounts of the famine in Ireland. According to the </span><i style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Freeman’s Journal</i><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">, of Cooperstown: “The accounts from Ireland, of the famishing condition of her people, are most appalling.” Readers learned of the dire conditions in Ireland and Scotland. To stimulate action, the press reported on famine relief meetings in other parts of the country and of meetings in Washington and Albany encouraging citizens to organize their own relief committees. </span><a href="about://" style="color: #954f72; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">[2]</a><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"> </span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">James Fenimore Cooper and one hundred and thirty-two other citizens of Cooperstown issued an appeal, “Relief to Ireland,” directed “To the Inhabitants of the County of Otsego” notifying them that a preliminary meeting for Irish relief met on 20 February and decided to request the citizens of Otsego County gather at a county meeting on 4 March to aid the Irish. Their appeal emphasized the magnitude of the crisis in Ireland, and the obligation of the American people to help. To push the people of Otsego County to act, Cooper and the others remined citizens of the “great and laudable exertions are making, in all parts of this vast country” to help the starving Irish. Newspapers and public meetings frequently used a combination of competition and shaming to motivate local residents to act. The appeal stressed the bounty of America compared to the want in Europe, a theme repeated across the country in 1847, but Cooper and the others raised an issue rarely mentioned in other city, town, and county meetings that the blessings of philanthropy were worth more than the pride of military victories---a not subtle reference to the Mexican American War. </span><a href="about://" style="color: #954f72; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">[3]</a><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">When the residents of Cooperstown met on 4 March, James Fenimore Cooper assumed the chairmanship of the resolutions committee and gave the major speech about conditions in Ireland. Robert Campbell chaired the meeting, and Charles McLean served as secretary. George Starkweather followed Cooper and addressed the assembled crowd. Resolutions adopted at the meeting stressed the common themes raised around the country. The resolutions voiced concerns about the magnitude of the crisis, the sympathy of the people of Otsego County to the human suffering in Europe, American abundance, and the need to unite to help the people of Ireland. Cooperstown’s residents elected James Fenimore Cooper chairman, George Starkweather secretary, and Henry Scott as treasurer of the Cooperstown and Otsego County Central Committee for Irish Relief. Resolutions recommended the establishment of local committees in each town in the county to collect foodstuffs, clothing, and money. Members of the Central Committee suggested dividing the towns by school districts and sending young men in sleighs or other vehicles to each house to collect donations. The Central Committee recommended food donations of corn, peas, beans, grain, and smoked and salted meat. A separate county appeal stressed American abundance, the scale of the suffering, and appealed to the pride and charity of the residents of Otsego County. Because “hundreds perish every week” and “food is wanting and that we possess in abundance” the American people must help the Irish.</span><a href="about://" style="color: #954f72; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">[4]</a><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Newspaper editors endorsed famine relief, as they did throughout the United States. According to the editor of </span><i style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Freeman’s Journal</i><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">: “The Irish Relief Depot, directly opposite our window, is filling rapidly with generous contributions of the humane.” The editor singled out the town of Hartwick “has been foremost in her action, and met a good example, which it is hoped…will be followed by her sister towns.” Editors used a mixture of pointing out good examples of charity, emphasizing competition in good works, and shaming to encourage donations. Similarly, the editor of the Otsego </span><i style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Democrat</i><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">, reported on the Central Committee sending 125 barrels of grain “for the benefit of the starving Irish. Let the cry be ‘still they come’” Cooperstown’s newspapers published reports of the donations, as for example, “the towns of Maryland and Butternuts, and some other towns, have considerable grain in store, which will be forwarded as soon as canal [Erie Canal] navigation opens.” James Fenimore Cooper collected donations through the middle of July 1847, and like other county chairmen, forwarded the collections to the Irish relief committee in New York City for transportation to the Society of Friends in Dublin for distribution. </span><a href="about://" style="color: #954f72; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">[5]</a><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Nearby Madison County followed the same pattern. As early as November 1846 residents could read of the “almost want of supply in Ireland, and the increasing destitution in that country, and in some parts of Scotland.” Conditions had not improved by February 1847: :There appears to be no mitigation in the accounts of sufferings by the famine in Ireland.” A circular appeared in mid-February calling upon “the citizens of Madison County to assemble in their respective towns, on Wednesday next, the 24th inst.,----for the purpose of contributing to the wants of the starving people of Ireland.” A local editor encouraged participation: “We hope the call will not be unheeded.” The press played a vital role in stimulating participation in the famine relief drive. A local paper, </span><i style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Madison County Whig</i><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"> publicized the meeting “for the purpose of raising funds for the starving millions of Ireland”</span><a href="about://" style="color: #954f72; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">[6]</a><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Citizens of the county met on the 24th at the Presbyterian Church in Cazenovia. Banker Jacob Ten Eyck presided at the meeting and resolutions adopted stressed he privations in Ireland, sympathy of the American people, and Americans, “abounding in the surplus of breadstuffs, and all productions of the earth” had a moral obligation to aid the Irish. Unlike the later Know Nothing movement that identified the Irish as the demonic Catholics, in 1847 the people of Madison County portrayed the Irish as “fellow-men” suffering from the destruction of their crops. In 1847, the Irish were fellow Christians. To assist in aiding the Irish the Central Committee established at the meeting created district subcommittees in the village of Cazenovia and urged the creation of town committees in the county to solicit donations. Unlike the Otsego County committee, but in common with most village, town, and county committees in the United States, the Cazenovia and Madison County Committee called upon the clergy to actively solicit contributions in each church. </span><a href="about://" style="color: #954f72; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">[7]</a><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Contributions came in from throughout the county. In the village of Cazenovia, Jacob Ten Eyck donated $25, the lodge of Independent Order of Odd Fellows,$75, and ‘KJ’s, “an order of young men, $27. Members of the Methodist, Presbyterian. Baptist, and Free Will Baptists collected in church for the Irish. Women donated as well as men, like Mrs. D.M. Pulford who gave $3, Anna Rice donated $1, and Mrs. C. Stone fifty cents. Altogether Cazenovia raised $366, Stockbridge $133, Smithfield $127, Madison $96, and De Ruyter about $76. By far, the largest contribution in the county and in upstate New York came from abolitionist Gerrit Smith of Peterboro, who sent $2,000 to the New York City committee “given to the starving people of Europe.”. People throughout the county, whether Lucretia Fuller with twenty-five cents to Smith’s $2,000 joined in this state and national movement of voluntary philanthropy.</span><a href="about://" style="color: #954f72; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">[8]</a><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">“We ought not to be behind our neighbors in this work of charity,” asked the editor of the Chenango </span><i style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Telegraph</i><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">. Millions of people faced starvation in Ireland and “is Norwich to do anything in the good work?” Meetings took place throughout Chenango County. At a spirited meeting at New Berlin for Irish relief several speakers discussed the crisis, the audience donated $118, and the town meeting established a central committee to collect donation dividing up the town into school districts to facilitate fundraising. Similarly, led by the Society of Friends in Smyrna, residents sent $60 to New York City for the Irish. The inhabitants of Shelburne sent thirty-nine bags of cornmeal to New York. Town and village meetings provided an opportunity as the most basic level for the people of central New York to express their support for the cause of Irish relief. </span><a href="about://" style="color: #954f72; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">[9]</a><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Village and town meeting played an instrumental role in initiating famine relief efforts in Tompkins County. Residents of Trumansburg met at the Presbyterian Church on 25 February and formed “a town society for the relief of the poor in Ireland and Scotland.” The audience voted to create an executive committee representing Trumansburg and the neighboring Jacksonville and Waterburgh and established depots for the collection of foodstuffs and clothing. A couple of weeks later Rev. Wilson Walker encouraged members of his Episcopalian congregation at St. Johns Church in Ithaca to donate $62 for Ireland. A local newspaper praised the congregation for its liberality, considering being “few in number, compared with some other denominations among us.” The editor of the Ithaca </span><i style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Journal</i><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"> wanted to start a competition between denominations to aid the Irish. </span><a href="about://" style="color: #954f72; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">[10]</a><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Efforts by the editor and Rev, Walker pressured the trustees of Ithaca to call a village meeting for Ireland on Tuesday evening, March 16th. As the newspaper suggested: “A general attendance of our citizens is earnestly requested.” Nathan Williams, President of the Board of Trustees, chaired the meeting. After a few remarks by President Williams about the grave conditions in Ireland followed by three other speakers discussing the problems in Ireland and the need for Americans to help. At a second meeting on 30th March attendees established a general committee to collect donations in foodstuffs and money. Village residents divided up the village into three districts to facilitate fundraising and called on towns in Tompkins County who have not previously contributed to hold meetings and send aid to Ithaca for collection. Workers at the Ithaca Falls Woolen Factory sent in their donations for Ireland including $5 from Augustus Atwood, $1 from Thomas Bray, $1 from Eliza Stoddard, and $1 from Margaret Maloney. These donations confirmed that aid for Ireland was a people-to-people movement in 1847 including from the poor operatives, men, and women, at a woolen mill in Ithaca, New York. </span><a href="about://" style="color: #954f72; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">[11]</a><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Women donated to Irish relief, from Brooklyn to Potsdam, but they could also initiate famine relief as they did in Binghamton, Broome County. In early February 1847, a group of women, led by Mrs. Dr. Andrews, Mrs. D.S. Dickinson, and Mrs. John Clapp, called on the ladies and gentlemen to attend a relief party at the house of Edward White Binghamton’s women established a Ladies’ Irish Relief Committee. The press endorsed this event as a “noble and praiseworthy project, and we hope to see the citizens of Binghamton” give liberally to the cause. Although a severe hailstorm hit that evening the women’s appeal “was responded to with much zeal and real charity by the inhabitants of our village.” Members of the Odd Fellows gave $100. Women raised $427 to purchase cornmeal sent to Dunmunnay and Skibbereen, Ireland. In addition, “ladies whose hearts have been touched with sympathy for their perishing fellow beings in Ireland,” were invited to bring clothes and bedding to the home of Gilbert Tompkins for the Irish. </span><a href="about://" style="color: #954f72; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">[12]</a><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Spurred on by the actions of Binghamton’s women the citizens of Binghamton met twice in March for Ireland. According to one of the newspapers the first meeting was “to add our mite to the large contributions now being gathered in many of the cities and towns in our country.” Speakers concentrated on the conditions in Ireland and the sympathy of the American people. At the first meeting, few of the wealthy and those with social standing attended and the bulk of the audience showed the “weather beaten faces of the mechanics and Irish laborers.” The meeting raised $200 including $80 from the Irish laborers on the local railroad. An appeal was also made to the towns in Broome County to participate. John Clapp, the treasurer of the Binghamton Irish Relief Committee sent $814 from Binghamton to Mahlon Day of the New York City committee who thanked “thee and all the contributors, in the name of suffering humanity for your benevolent aid.”</span><a href="about://" style="color: #954f72; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">[13]</a><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">H. Montgomery, editor of the </span><i style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Daily Advertiser</i><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">, in Auburn, Cayuga County, agreed on the need to help suffering humanity, but added the competitive edge, “Auburn and Syracuse, with the people of the counties in which they are located would not suffer themselves to be outdone in philanthropy.” Montgomery became one of the organizers of Irish relief in Auburn, evidence of the advocacy role played by newspaper editors during the first half of the 19th Century. Montgomery signed the broadside for a public meeting “to take into consideration the propriety of sending contributions for the relief of the poor </span><a href="about://" style="color: #954f72; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">[14]</a><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">in Ireland, suffering the evils of famine.’ The most prominent signer of the appeal was William Henry Seward, former Whig governor of New York, and future Secretary of State under Abraham Lincoln. </span><a href="about://" style="color: #954f72; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">[15]</a><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Villagers met on 15 February 1847, and the village President, E. A. Warden asked William Henry Seward to chair the meeting. Auburn’s meeting did something unique passing a resolution asking the state legislature to appropriate $100,000 for Irish relief. After adopting several resolutions, a subcommittee drafted an address that appealed for donations due to the calamitous situation facing the Irish people. This appeal identified the Irish not as the “other” but as members of “our race” suffering starvation. As with other meetings in central New York and the United States, the address reminded the villagers that they lived in a land of abundance and had a responsibility to help the Irish. Villagers expressed their support for a Congressional appropriation for the Irish and pledged to work with the state Irish relief committee in Albany The Auburn meeting prompted Cayuga towns to organize their own relief committees. For example, Springport’s inhabitants met on 18 February at the Presbyterian Church for collecting contributions “to relieve the extreme desolation and starving conditions of the poor of Ireland.” Residents established an executive committee to collect funds and foodstuffs for the Irish. Other towns in the county followed sending donations to either the state committee or the New York City committee. </span><a href="about://" style="color: #954f72; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">[16]</a><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Similar appeals emerged in towns in Onondaga County. In Baldwinsville, the local newspaper reminded its readers that “meetings are being held in all parts of the country and means devised for the mitigation of the distress of the poor peasantry in Ireland and Scotland.” The editor of the Onondaga</span><i style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"> Gazette</i><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"> recommended that the people of the town of Baldwinsville needed to help: “The people of this county---of this very town, are able in some degree to alleviate this distress by making collections…from their abundance.” Once again, and editor encouraged, advocated, and shamed his readers to help the suffering, Irish. The Baldwinsville editor portrayed the Irish as fellow human beings needing our assistance, not the “other,” a recurrent theme throughout central New York. In 1847, most Americans identified with the Irish as fellow Christians. As in Binghamton and Brooklyn, the editor wanted women to take the lead: “We hope our ladies will take this matter in hand and busy themselves in collecting subscriptions for the famishing.” Women could accomplish more in a week “than any man or set of men in a month.” This was an unusual perspective about the role of women in 1847, although women in towns and cities in New York, Pennsylvania, and Illinois played an important role in famine relief in 1847.</span><a href="about://" style="color: #954f72; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">[17]</a><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Continuing the pressure to act the editor noted: “Another week has passed, and the citizens of Lysander have done nothing---nothing---for the relief of suffering humanity in the old country.” The editor did not believe that his readers “are so given to hardness of heart to turn a deaf ear to the cries of misery and distress” from Europe. Citizens throughout New York held meetings and established committees to raise relief aid. The editor asked: “Then why should we be backward.?” Closer to home he cited the meetings in Salina and Syracuse in Onondaga County. A relief meeting held recently in Syracuse collected $600 and within two weeks rose to $1,000. At the meeting in Salina, a county relief committee was formed with James Lynch, chairing the county executive committee, consisting of representative from Salina and Syracuse. Drafting an appeal to the towns in Onondaga County the committee stressed the magnitude of the crisis, the abundance of the American people, common Christianity, and the need for each town in the county to hold Irish relief meetings. The meeting made clear that “our fellow citizens without distinction of sect or party” joined to alleviate the suffering in Ireland. </span><a href="about://" style="color: #954f72; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">[18]</a><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Towns responded. Spafford held a meeting for Irish relief on 10th March creating a committee of ten to procure contributions and a local executive committee to receive and forward the donations. In mid-April, residents of Baldwinsville met at the Seneca Hotel to organize relief efforts. The editor argued if you cannot afford to give $20 give $5, and if you cannot afford $5 give $1 or fifty cents, “at least give something---and show you are not entirely destitute of charitable feeling.” Van Buren and Lysander also held meetings in mid-April for Irish relief. Manlius sent twenty-seven barrels of cornmeal aboard James in June to Limerick. The women of the Presbyterian Church and Society of Onondaga Hollow held a fair and collected $63.68 “to the relief of the starving Irish and Scotch.” Cardiff sent $95, Skaneateles $50, Liverpool $51, and Fulton $40. Meanwhile, James Lynch, of the Irish Relief Committee of Salina and Syracuse sent $1,200 as a “first remittance” to Myndert Van Schaick, chairman of the New York City General Irish Relief Committee. Members of the Salina and Syracuse committee preferred that half of their donations be used to send cornmeal to the Irish counties of Cork, Kerry, and Tipperary where they believed “the greatest destitution prevails.” Van Schaick informed the Dublin Quakers of the wishes of the people of Salina and Syracuse. Eventually, Syracuse and Onondaga County donated about $3,000. Separately, Catholic churches in Salina and Syracuse sent $31 and $250, respectively, to Archbishop John Hughes in New York City for the Irish relief committee. Catholic priests split on how they forwarded money donated in church for the Irish, as some sent the funds to their local Irish relief committees, others to the New York City committee, and other preferred to go through Archbishop Hughes. </span><a href="about://" style="color: #954f72; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">[19]</a><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Meanwhile, a committee of women was appointed in Rome, Oneida County to solicit donations. According to the </span><i style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Roman Citizen’s</i><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"> editor, J.P Fitch, “through them the good people of this place my assist in relieving the terrible distress of the Irish.” The women in Rome “were busy taking subscriptions for the relief of the famishing in Europe.’ Fitch expressed his hope no one in Rome would refuse the women’s request for donations. Responding the appeal that came from the state Irish relief committee in Albany, the citizens of Rome met in mid-February with the village president, Dr. H.H. Pope chairing the meeting. Not surprisingly, editor J.P. Fitch won election as a member of Rome’s Executive Committee, again suggesting how newspaper editors not only publicized local relief efforts but became active participants. Subcommittees were established to divide the town, including Wright’s Settlement, On the Turnpike, and Across the Swamp, to facilitate reaching everyone in the community for donations. To further aid in fundraising, several vocalists from Utica came to town to hold a musical concert for Irish relief. In response to an appeal from the Oneida County Relief Committee in Utica, Rome became one of the two depots in he county for contributions of flour, wheat, cornmeal, and other provisions. By early March, Rome’s committee sent eighty barrels of flour and one bag of peas by the Mohawk and Hudson Railroad to the state committee in Albany. In addition to the town’s donations Roman Catholics, primarily Irish, sent remittances totaling $700 via Father Beecham to family and friends in Ireland. As the </span><i style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Roman Citizen</i><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"> concluded these remittances came from “day laborers…struggling hard against poverty here” In one case, a poor Irish girl sent $10 “who works for five shillings a week. There is a noble vein of humanity in the Irish heart.” </span><a href="about://" style="color: #954f72; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">[20]</a><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">The main meeting in Oneida County was held in Utica on the 11th of February at the Common Council Room led by Mayor Edmund .A. Whetmore, a Whig, assisted by C.C. Broadhead, and merchant and Catholic activist Nicholas Devereux. After listening to several speeches about the plight of the Irish and the need to help, a City General Committee was elected which included Whetmore, Devereux, Broadhead, and future governor Democrat Horatio Seymour. Other members of the Executive Committee were abolitionist Alvin Stewart and Judge Ezekiel Bacon, a delegate to the 1846 constitutional convention. Francis Kernan, Catholic, a Democratic politician, future Senator, and businessman, was elected Treasurer and ward committees were created to canvass for donations. James Watson Williams, the future Democratic mayor of Utica, served on the third ward subcommittee. Participants in the meeting gave $725. By the time of the second meeting for Irish relief on the 18th of February, the committee had raised an additional $1,194 including $100 from a concert at St. John’s Church and $106.51 from the Lunatic Asylum. Officers, attendants, and patients at the State Lunatic Asylum met on the afternoon of the 18th to discuss the conditions in Ireland. Dr. Brigham chaired the meeting and one of the patients served as secretary. Resolutions approved mentioned the deplorable conditions of the Irish people, the sympathy of Americans, and need to do what they could to alleviate the suffering. While patients offered to donate, only contributions from officers and attendants were considered appropriate. Newspapers throughout New York state devoted space to the Irish relief meeting at the Lunatic Asylum.</span><a href="about://" style="color: #954f72; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">[21]</a><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">The committee in Utica asked the help of the women of the community to collect clothing for the Irish. A resolution moved by Francis Kernan requested “that the ladies of Utica…are hereby solicited to co-operate in this work of mercy.” Also, the Catholic Order of Sisters of Charity, collected clothing. Female participation followed the pattern of social space allowed women in mid -19th Century America. Aiding the Irish appeared a natural extension to men of women’s roles in the home. For women it provided an opportunity to participate in a national voluntary effort and to take a more public role. Historian Christine Kinealy concluded that “women in the United States provided assistance to Ireland in various ways.” As in other communities women joined in donating to the starving. For example, Catherine Condon gave $5 as did Mrs. M. Manahan, Mrs. Regan donated $1, Mary Sullivan and Eliza Walsh fifty cents. While middle class women tended to participate in public meetings or in the publicized clothing drives, as in Binghamton, Rome, and Utica. Working class women contributing to Irish relief, including the operatives at the Ithaca Falls Woolen Factory, contributors in Utica or Cazenovia, or Irish women sending remittances in Rome. </span><a href="about://" style="color: #954f72; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">[22]</a><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Members of the Utica committee reached out to the towns in Oneida County, like Rome, to hold their own meetings for the Irish or allow visits from committee members to collect donations. In their county appeal, the committee informed the residents of Oneida County about the danger of inaction since “the famine…is sweeping thousands of her people to the gates of death.’” Ireland depended upon American for assistance to survive. American prosperity demanded that neighbors in each town join together to encourage donations and the clergy in each town “take charge of this benevolent effort” calling on their congregations to give money or send flour, wheat, cornmeal, corn, or other provisions to the depots in Rome and Utica. Afterall, the committee argued “let us remember we can carry nothing into the next world except we have given away in this.” Towns responded, for example, Boonville sent $100, citizens of Deerfield asked the committee to send a representative to collect the town’s subscription, and farmers from surrounding towns brought in a large quantity of provisions. In the end the Utica committee sent 500 barrels of kiln dried corn aboard the warship Macedonian and expressed their “hope and prayers that God will stay the ravages of famine.”</span><a href="about://" style="color: #954f72; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">[23]</a><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">The movement in central New York and throughout the United States to help the Irish in 1847 became a people-to-people movement of kindness and generosity by Americans to the starving people of Ireland. Americans repeatedly stressed in central New York and elsewhere that as a people of plenty with abundant harvests Americans had an obligation to help the starving in Europe. Americans saw the Irish in 1847, not as the hated Catholic “other,” but as fellow Christians facing a disaster. The Irish were fellow human beings, brethren, who faced death without American assistance. </span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Newspaper editors, like J.P. Fitch in Rome, clergy, and politicians, like William Henry Seward in Auburn pushed their communities to participate in this national cause of international philanthropy. Fitting a pattern of American voluntary action, citizens of towns, like Boonville in Oneida County or Ithaca in Tompkins County, organized temporary relief committees to spur their residents to contribute. Collecting money, food, and clothing, the local committees sent on their donations to county committees or directly to the state committee in Albany or the New York City committee for transportation to Europe. Trusting the Society of Friends in Dublin to be impartial and non-partisan in their distribution of the aid, Americans, whether in Utica, New York or Charleston, South Carolina, sent most of the contributions to the Dublin Quakers. American aid was non-partisan as both Whig and Democratic politicians advocated aid, and members of every religious denomination, including Catholics, Presbyterians, Episcopalians, and Baptists joined in this national movement of international charity as the United States became the leader in international philanthropy during the Great Hunger in Ireland. Writing to the Utica and Oneida County committee, Dublin Quakers Joseph Bewley and Jonathan Pim, expressed their gratitude to the Utica committee and “the generous efforts of the citizens of the United States.”</span><a href="about://" style="color: #954f72; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">[24]</a><br /><br /><span style="font-family: inherit;">About the author: Harvey Strum is a history and political science professor at Russell Sage College in Troy and Albany. His most recent publications include: <i>America’s Mission of Mercy to Ireland, 1880</i>, New York History, 2018; <i>Schenectady’s Jews, Zionism</i>, New York History Review, 2019, 2020, 2021.</span><br /><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; margin: 0in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.399999618530273px; margin: 0in 0in 8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="text-align: left;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; text-align: left;"> </span></p><div><br clear="all" /><hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" /><div id="edn1"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://E1DF707B-EFC7-4777-87B3-D893026AF9B4#_ednref1" name="_edn1" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14px;">[1]</span></span></span></a> <span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Irish Relief Committee of Utica New York to Society of Friends in Dublin, 8 May 1847, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Society of Friends, <i>Transactions of the Society of Friends During the Famine in Ireland <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">(Dublin: Edmund Burke, 1996 reprint of 1852 edition), 241; Norwich <i>Chenango <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Telegraph, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">24 February 1847.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn2"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://E1DF707B-EFC7-4777-87B3-D893026AF9B4#_ednref2" name="_edn2" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 26.666664123535156px; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14px;">[2]</span></span></span> <span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;">J. Fenimore Cooper to Richard Bentley, 27 March 1847, James Franklin Beard, ed., <i>The Letters and Journals of James Fenimore Cooper </i>(Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1968), V, 199; <i>Cooperstown Freeman’s Journal, </i>20 February 1847.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn3"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://E1DF707B-EFC7-4777-87B3-D893026AF9B4#_ednref3" name="_edn3" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14px;">[3]</span></span></span></a> <i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Cooperstown Freeman’s Journal, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">27 February 1847.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn4"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://E1DF707B-EFC7-4777-87B3-D893026AF9B4#_ednref4" name="_edn4" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14px;">[4]</span></span></span> <i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Cooperstown Freeman’s Journal, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">13 March 1847; <i>Cooperstown Otsego Democrat, </i>13 <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">March 1847; Another copy of the county resolutions, “To the Citizens of Otsego County, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">8 March 1847, from J. Fenimore Cooper and members of the Central Committee, in <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Beard, <i>James Fenimore Cooper, </i>V, 197-98.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn5"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://E1DF707B-EFC7-4777-87B3-D893026AF9B4#_ednref5" name="_edn5" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14px;">[5]</span></span></span> <i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Cooperstown Freeman’s Journal, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">13 March 1847; <i>Cooperstown Democrat, </i>20 March <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">1847; <i>Cooperstown Freeman’s Journal, </i>24 April 1847; James Fenimore Cooper to Jacob <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Harvey, 22 July 1847, James Cummins bookseller. <o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn6"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://E1DF707B-EFC7-4777-87B3-D893026AF9B4#_ednref6" name="_edn6" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14px;">[6]</span></span></span> <i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Cazenovia Madison County Whig, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">11 November 1847, 24 February 1847, 17 February <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">1847; February 24, 1847.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn7"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://E1DF707B-EFC7-4777-87B3-D893026AF9B4#_ednref7" name="_edn7" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14px;">[7]</span></span></span> <i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Cazenovia Madison County Whig, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">3 March 1847.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn8"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://E1DF707B-EFC7-4777-87B3-D893026AF9B4#_ednref8" name="_edn8" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14px;">[8]</span></span></span> <i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Cazenovia Madison County Whig </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">3, 10 March 1847<i>, </i>7 April 1847; Disbursements, 13 <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">March 1847, “given to the starving from Europe, $2,000” Gerrit Smith Papers, Department <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">of Special Collections, E.S. Bird Library, Syracuse University Library, Syracuse, N.Y.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn9"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://E1DF707B-EFC7-4777-87B3-D893026AF9B4#_ednref9" name="_edn9" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14px;">[9]</span></span></span> <i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Norwich Chenango Telegraph, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">24 February 1847; Friends, <i>Transactions, </i>337.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn10"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://E1DF707B-EFC7-4777-87B3-D893026AF9B4#_ednref10" name="_edn10" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14px;">[10]</span></span></span> <i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Ithaca Journal & General Advertiser, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">2 March 1847 for Trumansburg meeting, 10 March <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">1847 for Episcopal meeting.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn11"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://E1DF707B-EFC7-4777-87B3-D893026AF9B4#_ednref11" name="_edn11" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14px;">[11]</span></span></span> <i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Ithaca Journal & General Advertiser, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">17 March 1847, 7 April 1847. Every worker at the <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Ithaca Falls Woolen Mill is listed with their contributions. <o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn12"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://E1DF707B-EFC7-4777-87B3-D893026AF9B4#_ednref12" name="_edn12" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14px;">[12]</span></span></span><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Binghamton Courier, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">10 February 1847; <i>Binghamton Broome Republican, </i>10 February <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">1847;</span> <span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">See letter to the editor, 24 February 1847 from the women’s committee; <i>New <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Orleans Delta, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">17 March 1847; <i>Norwich Chenango Telegraph, </i>24 February 1847; <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Binghamton Courier, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">10 March 1847 for request to donate clothing; “Subscriber P to the <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Editor of the Freeman’s Journal,” 17 February 1847, <i>New York Freeman’s Journal, </i>6<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">March 1847<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn13"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://E1DF707B-EFC7-4777-87B3-D893026AF9B4#_ednref13" name="_edn13" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14px;">[13]</span></span></span> <i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Binghamton Courier, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">17 February 1847; John Clapp to the Editor of the <i>Broome <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Republican, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">9 April 1847, Mahlon Day to John Clapp, 29 March 1847, in <i>Binghamton <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Broome Republican, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">14 April 1847.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn14"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://E1DF707B-EFC7-4777-87B3-D893026AF9B4#_ednref14" name="_edn14" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14px;">[14]</span></span></span> <i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Auburn Daily Advertiser, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">13 February 1847. <o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn15"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://E1DF707B-EFC7-4777-87B3-D893026AF9B4#_ednref15" name="_edn15" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14px;">[15]</span></span></span><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Auburn Daily Advertiser, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">15 February 1847 for the public appeal. </span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn16"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://E1DF707B-EFC7-4777-87B3-D893026AF9B4#_ednref16" name="_edn16" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14px;">[16]</span></span></span> <i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Auburn</span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> <i>Daily Advertiser, </i>20 February 1847.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn17"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://E1DF707B-EFC7-4777-87B3-D893026AF9B4#_ednref17" name="_edn17" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14px;">[17]</span></span></span> <i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Baldwinsville Onondaga Gazette, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">18 February 1847.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn18"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://E1DF707B-EFC7-4777-87B3-D893026AF9B4#_ednref18" name="_edn18" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14px;">[18]</span></span></span> <i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Baldwinsville Onondaga Gazette, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">24 February 1847, 3 March 1847.As an example of <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">an advertisement from the Executive Committee to the towns in the county, see 14 April <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">1847. For an account of the Salina and Syracuse meeting, <i>Syracuse Daily Star, </i>17<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">February 1847; For brief accounts of meetings <i>Syracuse Religious Recorder of Central <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">and Western New York, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">18, 25 February 1847, 11 March 1847.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn19"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://E1DF707B-EFC7-4777-87B3-D893026AF9B4#_ednref19" name="_edn19" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14px;">[19]</span></span></span><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Baldwinsville</span></i> <i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Onondaga Gazette, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">24 March 1847; 14 April 1847; <i>Syracuse Religious <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Recorder of Central and Western New York, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">11 March 1847 (3:45); M. Van Schaick to <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Joseph Bewley and Jonathan Pim, 16 March 1847 in General Relief Committee, <i>Aid to <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Ireland </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">(New York: General Relief Committee, 1848), 82-83 for reference to the letter from <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">James Lynch of the Salina and Syracuse committee and 37, 40 for Syracuse donations. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Also, for funds raised in the towns in Onondaga County and final results, see <i>Syracuse<o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Daily Star, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">17 August 1847. Copies of the <i>Star </i>kindly provided by the Onondaga County <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Public Library in Syracuse. <o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn20"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://E1DF707B-EFC7-4777-87B3-D893026AF9B4#_ednref20" name="_edn20" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14px;">[20]</span></span></span> <i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Roman Citizen, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">12 February, 19 February, 26 February, 5 March 1847. Also, for the role <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">of women as fundraisers in Rome, see <i>Albany Argus, </i>16 February 1847.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn21"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://E1DF707B-EFC7-4777-87B3-D893026AF9B4#_ednref21" name="_edn21" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14px;">[21]</span></span></span> <i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Utica Daily Gazette, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">12 February, 13 February, 18 February, 20 February, 22 February, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">1847; As examples of the distribution of the story on the Lunatic Asylum, <i>New York <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Freeman’s Journal, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">27 February 1847, and <i>Binghamton Courier, </i>17 March 1847. As an <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">example of collections, see $25 subscription for Irish relief to Francis Kernan, Treasurer, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">5 April 1847, Francis Kernan Papers (part of the Kernan Family Papers), Special <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Collections, Carl Koch Library, Cornell University, Ithaca. <o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn22"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://E1DF707B-EFC7-4777-87B3-D893026AF9B4#_ednref22" name="_edn22" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14px;">[22]</span></span></span> <i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Utica Daily Gazette, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">6 March, 9 March 1847; Christine Kinealy, <i>Charity, and the Great <o:p></o:p></i></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Hunger in Ireland: The Kindness of Strangers </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">(London and New York: Bloomsbury <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Academic, 2013), 161.<i><o:p></o:p></i></span></p></div><div id="edn23"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://E1DF707B-EFC7-4777-87B3-D893026AF9B4#_ednref23" name="_edn23" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14px;">[23]</span></span></span> <i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Roman Citizen, </span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">5 March 1847; <i>Utica Daily Gazette,</i> 20 February 1847, 6, <i> </i>23 and 27 <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">March 1847; Irish Relief Committee of Utica New York to the Society of Friends in Dublin, <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">8 May 1847, <i>Transactions, </i>241.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn24"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><a href="applewebdata://E1DF707B-EFC7-4777-87B3-D893026AF9B4#_ednref24" name="_edn24" title=""></a><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14px;">[24]</span></span></span> <span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">Joseph Bewley and Jonathan Pim, secretaries, to Edmund Wetmore, et al, 7 November <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">1848, in <i>Utica Morning Herald, </i>18 November 1848. The Utica committee issued a brief <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">final report of the donations sent to Ireland. Also, published <i>Utica Daily Gazette. </i>A copy <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt;">of this report kindly provided by the Oneida History Center in Utica.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div></div>DLJhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14674534926004739081noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3330136066649493860.post-4997381652306624102021-11-30T08:22:00.005-08:002021-11-30T08:50:23.370-08:00 The Secret Agent, or The Voice from the Shadows…<div style="text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: center;"><br /></div><i style="font-family: Cambria, serif;"><div style="text-align: center;"><br /></div></i> Your thoughts I have at my command!<br /> Yet, you do not know where I stand…<br /> I can track you through the air.<br /> I can follow you anywhere!<br /> Soldier, spy, pilot and cop…<br /> my work for good does not stop.<br /> Crooks I pursue, to bring justice to them…<br /> then I vanish and I do it again!<br /> I have eagle eyes and I see into your heart!<br /> But I am not noticed for my arcane art…<br /> Ciphers and crimes to me involve<br /> being a twilight witness in all I solve.<br /> I am a friend to those in need,<br /> knowing fruit of the bitterest breed!<br /> Trouble is afoot, when my ring glows…<br /> and evil is vanquished…<i>The Shadow</i> knows!<br /><o:p> <br /></o:p> ---Michael Mauro DeBonis, 03-03-21.</div><div style="text-align: left;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: left;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: left;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: left;"><br /><o:p> <br /></o:p><b><i>***The Shadow </i>is a registered trademark of Conde Nast Publications Inc., copyright 2021, all rights reserved.<br /></b> <br /><o:p> <br /></o:p><b><i>About the Poet:</i> </b>Michael Mauro DeBonis is a poet and a historian from Long Island, New York. A graduate of Suffolk County Community College (A. A. Liberal Studies) and SUNY at Stony Brook (B. A. English Literature) Michael’s work first appeared in the<i> Brookhaven Times </i>newspapers. Michael latest work may be found in <i>The New York History Review </i>(poetry and prose) and <i>The New York History Blog </i>(prose only)<i>. </i>Mr. DeBonis is dedicated to studying and to learning the history of the great State of New York.<br /><o:p> </o:p></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in; text-align: left;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in; text-align: left;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in; text-align: left;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in; text-align: left;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in; text-align: left;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in; text-align: left;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in; text-align: left;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in; text-align: left;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in; text-align: left;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in; text-align: left;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in; text-align: left;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in; text-align: left;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in; text-align: left;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in; text-align: left;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in; text-align: left;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in; text-align: left;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in; text-align: left;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in; text-align: left;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in; text-align: left;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in; text-align: left;"> <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria, serif; margin: 0in;"> <o:p></o:p></p>DLJhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14674534926004739081noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3330136066649493860.post-17125380846638533172021-11-27T12:54:00.017-08:002021-12-11T07:01:15.730-08:00 From The Shadow into Light: The Visionary Life and Times of Walter Brown Gibson<b>by <a href="mailto:debonismichael26@gmail.com" target="_blank">Michael Mauro DeBonis</a><br />Copyright ©2021 All rights reserved by the author.</b><br /><br /><br /><br /><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiLx1lmAOIC0QhHAuUvfFBjj4VCC8mStf9s48t2DDmrIfXIgKHOgwnCotVkNuBxSsTzbNSYe1WcJ5zgpvBgcHmcAx6RdWxTlyjLZwt54-Ds_8RHHOwzhd7-xzkE5tPlvP_8nAFPtmb9Jge3EsTzsRU2iwXkGx5IdC2YxXabBkHGrqdGhNbLJ4HQm6qR3g=s400" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="400" data-original-width="284" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiLx1lmAOIC0QhHAuUvfFBjj4VCC8mStf9s48t2DDmrIfXIgKHOgwnCotVkNuBxSsTzbNSYe1WcJ5zgpvBgcHmcAx6RdWxTlyjLZwt54-Ds_8RHHOwzhd7-xzkE5tPlvP_8nAFPtmb9Jge3EsTzsRU2iwXkGx5IdC2YxXabBkHGrqdGhNbLJ4HQm6qR3g=w144-h200" title="Walter B. Gibson, circa 1965. Photo courtesy of William V. Rauscher, 2021." width="144" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span>Walter B. Gibson, circa </span><span>1965. </span></span></div><span style="font-size: x-small;"><div style="text-align: left;"><span>Photo courtesy of William V. </span><span>Rauscher</span></div></span></td></tr></tbody></table><br />Walter Brown Gibson was an American literary dynamo, and he was a man of unquestionable artistic creativity, vision, and immense versatility. And so it was Gibson who forged the modern world's first great superhero, called <i>The Shadow</i>.<br /><br />Master stage magician, top-notch true crime reporter, and word-puzzle expert and mystery writer, par excellence, only give a vague description of who the perennially brilliant Gibson was. Gibson's origins, achievements, and life deserve special attention to properly note his incredibly complex story. Gibson was, after all, a very cagy and competent illusionist. And so we must be careful, as students of history, to sharply look with eagle eyes beneath the veneer of a man (whose persistent modesty) always obscured the giant of who he actually was. Let us remove for your eyes the crafty clouds shielding the genius of Walter Brown Gibson. Let all who inhabit our twenty-first century know Gibson, as man and artist…let our show begin!<br /><br /> The curtains first opened for Walter Brown Gibson on the stage of life on September 12, 1897, at 2 PM (Shimeld, 11). Gibson's mother, May Whidden Gibson, gave birth to her son Walter at the family's somewhat lavish two-story Tudor style house, located at 707 West Philellena Street, in Germantown, Pennsylvania (Shimeld, 11-12). May Whidden Gibson's paternal family lineage and history could "…be traced as far back as the flight of the Pilgrims to America on the <i>Mayflower</i>…" (Shimeld, 8). Gibson's father, Alfred C. Gibson, had served as a young soldier and clerk in the Union Army during the American Civil War (Shimeld, 9-10). Walter Brown Gibson's grandfather, Joseph Gibson, also served honorably in the Union Army's 71st Pennsylvania Infantry Division during The War Between the States (Shimeld, 10). It is a point of the ongoing historical debate about Walter B. Gibson's father's genealogical origins. They (the Gibsons) appear to have been migrants from Great Britain to North America, sometime before the Nineteenth Century, and they were ardent followers of the Episcopal Christian Church. When Gibson's ancestors exactly left the British Isles for America is still unknown, but it is presently a matter of much historical probing, as mentioned earlier in this paragraph. <span><a name='more'></a></span><br /><br /> Alfred Cornelius Gibson (1849-1931) "…was noted as the last surviving person who was present during…[President Abraham Lincoln's accused murderers'] conspiracy trials" (Shimeld, 9-10). "Before his sixteenth birthday, Alfred enlisted in the 215th [Pennsylvanian] Regiment Volunteers as a fifer" (Shimeld, 10) before moving on to an orderly's position for Colonel Francis P. Jones and then later becoming a clerk for Major General John F. Hartranft (Shimeld, 10). During the trials, which began in mid-May 1865 and concluded in mid-June of 1865 (Shimeld, 10), the young Gibson reported to Hartranft on the prisoners, conversed with witnesses, listened to the trials' legal proceedings, and he played his musical instrument (Shimeld, 10). The elder Gibson patriarch would never let his magician son forget about Lincoln's tragic assassination. Nor would Alfred C. Gibson let Walter Brown Gibson lose historical perspective on the Lincoln assassination's turbulent and notorious aftermath, its hugely enduring effect on Alfred, personally, and on the American nation as a whole (Shimeld, 9-10). A. Cornelius Gibson painstakingly recorded the minutia of the history-making trial several times for both his son and others throughout his long life (Shimeld, 9-10).<br /><br /> Following his honorable discharge from the Union Army in 1865, Alfred C. Gibson resumed his academic studies, graduating from Central High School in 1867 (Shimeld, 11). Using an esteemed letter of introduction from his former mentor and Army superior General Hartranft, young Gibson Sr. could secure a decent job with a Pennsylvania gas fixture firm (Shimeld, 10-11). Alfred Gibson was to professionally and financially profit in the gas fixture industry, eventually opening his own private gas fixture company and factory in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania called Gibson's Gas Fixture Works (Shimeld, 13), which was a dynamic, lucrative business operation. Gibson's company quickly transitioned from the manufacture of gas fixtures to electrical ones at the turn of the Twentieth Century (Shimeld, 13). Walter Brown Gibson’s father, Alfred, was one of the most successful, competent and forward-thinking businessmen in the city of Philadelphia (Shimeld, 13-14). <br /><br /> Alfred Gibson's professional and financial success in the gas and electrical businesses led him to build and to buy a larger and more ornate mansion (at 707 Westview Avenue) for him and his family to inhabit (Shimeld, 14). Their new home was close to their first (Shimeld, 14). The twelve-year-old Walter Brown Gibson enjoyed a happy and prosperous childhood at both residences. Walter B. Gibson would recall this fact recurrently throughout his long life (Shimeld, 15). It seems Walter Gibson was a hungry and ambitious reader from early childhood. Gibson "…often referred to himself as a teenage bookworm" (Rauscher, 1). The young Walter Gibson "…also developed a very early interest in the art of magic" (Rauscher, 1). In 1905, while visiting at a celebration in Manchester, Vermont, the eight year-old Walter had his first exposure to stage magic (Rauscher, 1). <br /><br /> "During the party games that followed, he [Walter] was given a string to follow and [was] told there would be a surprise for him at the end of it" (Knowles, 1). There was a trick box at the end of the string for Walter to find (Knowles, 1) and "…, and so started his life-long interest in magic and mysteries, (Knowles, 1). Walter exhibited tremendous writing talent early, getting his first literary piece published in 1905, while eight years old, in Saint Nicholas Magazine (Rauscher, 1). It was a very clever riddle that Walter's rich and cryptic imagination created all by itself. It read as follows: Change this figure (4) to another system of notation, and it will give you the name of a very old plant" (Rauscher, 1). The answer to young Walter's word query was "ivy," written in Roman numerical form as "IV." Walter had made a very small but meaningful artistic splash in the prestigious publication and (he) had officially joined the childhood ranks of William Faulkner, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and Edna Saint Vincent Millay. They all were also published as kids in S<i>aint Nicholas Magazine</i> (Rauscher, 1). The eight year-old literary phenomenon, who hailed from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, had called his novel verbal puzzle appropriately “Enigma” (Tollin, 127). <br /><br />Thus, from Walter Gibson's very fortuitous year of 1905 and forward, he had (knowingly or not) carefully mapped out his career path from an early age. His drive and success came about from his persistently insatiable and eclectic appetite for book learning. It also began from an individual work ethic that was literally second to none. These two vital and primal aspects of Walter Brown Gibson's protean personality would be fearlessly combined (almost alchemically) with Walter's incredibly fertile imagination. From Walter's eighth year of age and to his very end, he would become a man of big ideas, and he would rapidly and permanently transform himself into a bold literary visionary. For endless critics and naysayers of artists, Walter would prove them all wrong. In fact, Mr. Gibson did so regularly, and Walter would dramatically alter the world's literary landscape forever.<br /><br />Young Walter (unusually curious for a child) became obsessed with magicians and magic tricks…" Throughout his early teens, Gibson devoured all he could find out about magic, and [he] spent hours entertaining his family with tricks" (Knowles, 1). In 1912 the fifteen-year-old Gibson "…was seeking out magic shops and he had also developed a passion for mystery books" (Knowles, 1). The youthful Gibson proved to be a literary dynamo. He published his first mystery tale, "The Hidden Will," in the Wissahickon School Magazine of Chestnut Hill Academy in Philadelphia. Subsequently, Walter published his second mystery tale in 1916, as a student at the Peddie School, in Hightstown, New Jersey (Knowles, 1). Walter's story was called "The Romuda," It won him a prestigious writing award, earning the personal praise of former U. S. President William H. Taft (Knowles, 1). In a face-to-face acknowledgment to high school student Gibson, Taft remarked to Walter, "I hope your story will be the beginning of a long literary career" (Knowles, 1). These experiences bolstered tremendously Walter’s self-confidence as a short story writer when he entered into undergraduate study as a freshman at Colgate University, after Gibson earned his diploma from the Peddie School in 1916 (Knowles, 1 and Shimeld, 23). <br /><br />Walter Gibson grew to be of medium height, with a build both lean and strong. His large, bright blue eyes resembled two sapphire lanterns, which generated both immense cleverness and mischief for all who looked in them. Walter's very animated and benevolent demeanor was the one that people remembered about him. Gibson used his magic shows to electrify friends and fans alike with his innate positivity and style. Walter's amiable personality was further intensified by his erudite and glowing charisma. Gibson had thick, wavy, light brown hair, perennially and neatly combed back over his crown. <br /><br />Between his senior year at the Peddie School and his entry into Colgate University, Walter wrote and published several professional-grade instructional articles for <i>The Sphinx</i> magic magazine (Mayne, 1). Moving on to college, Walter eagerly filled his insatiable intellect by thoroughly studying "…Greek, Latin, rhetoric, French, public speaking and biology" (Shimeld, 25) while he was a student at Colgate University, in Hamilton, Madison County, New York (Knowles, 1). Walter even spent his summer preparing for war at the Plattsburg Military Training in Plattsburg, New York (Shimeld, 24). World War I was on and the very bloody conflict involved tens of thousands of American doughboys fighting in the European Theatre. <br /><br />His ROTC-like soldering drills in upstate New York Gibson took seriously, and he was very attentive in performing his assigned tasks (Shimeld, 24-25). Very luckily for Walter B. Gibson, "The War to End All Wars" terminated in late 1918, allowing the young man to focus on his college studies and magic tricks in peace. It is noted here that from September 12, 1918-December 18, 1918, Walter Brown Gibson did enlist and serve in the U. S. Army successfully as a private (Shimeld, 27). Walter was honorably discharged from military service because the First World War had ended (Shimeld, 27), thus preempting any possible deployment the patriotic Gibson may have had to Europe from his American homeland. <br /><br />Returning eagerly to college in January 1919, Gibson continued to religiously dedicate himself to his academic pursuits and his study of prestidigitation. He participated skillfully and incessantly in Colgate’s Music Club by doing many well-received sleight-of-hand presentations prior to concerts, before then joining the school’s Biological Society, to satisfy his scientific curiosities (Shimeld, 26). <br /><br />Upon his successful completion of the spring 1919 semester at Colgate University, the intrepid Gibson did the unthinkable, withdrawing from college before the commencement of his senior year (Knowles, 1 and Shimeld, 28). Whether or not it was Walter's artistic leanings or very independent spirit that caused his premature departure from Colgate, he did leave there on his own accord, without any outside influence from anyone. Walter was a very popular student at Colgate University…but the change was in the air for Mister Gibson. With the Great War behind him and stellar grades under his belt, Walter Gibson seemed to have emotionally outgrown the many quotidian drudgeries of academic life, “Gibson felt that he had gained all the knowledge he could and [he] decided to leave college to reconstruct his life into, what he felt to be, something more beneficial,” (Shimeld, 28). <br /><br />Gibson followed his sudden scholastic exodus by swiftly deciding, "…to join a carnival and perform magic" (Knowles, 1). Walter Brown Gibson was now on the move, and the terrific and steady momentum he had carefully and fearlessly gathered in his youth and as a teenager was firing away in truly volcanic fashion. Yet the young man Gibson was had only begun to work his miraculous sorcery. America and the world beckoned to Walter, and Walter would not scoff at or deflect the truly great opportunities that were laid before him.<br /><br />While performing as a seasonal illusionist at the carnival, Gibson met and befriended many professional magicians (Mayne, 2). Gibson's first real job was selling insurance, while he applied for writing work with various Philadelphia newspapers (Mayne, 2). Walter continued to write behind-the-scenes and how-to articles about legerdemain and parlor games for both <i>The Sphinx</i> and <i>Magic World</i> magazines (Mayne, 2). All Gibson's writing was much respected. In the summer of 1919, Walter received a letter of high praise from Sphinx editor Dr. A. M. Wilson, who was very enthusiastic about Gibson's excellence in scripting contributions to his periodical (Shimeld, 28).<br /><br />Gibson's terrifically steadfast work ethic (clearly instilled in him by his father Alfred) and his constant devotion to achieving superb literary craftsmanship were paying off because, in 1920, The Philadelphia <i>North American</i> hired Gibson as its newest cub reporter (Mayne, 2). During a local bridge collapse shortly afterward, destiny came knocking for Walter Brown Gibson (Mayne, 2). Veteran journalists were called away from the office to cover the story (Mayne, 2), and Walter, the novice reporter, was left behind to "…man the office" (Mayne, 2). At this precise moment, President Warren Harding had arrived in Philadelphia (Mayne, 2), and his staff contacted the<i> North American</i> to be interviewed (Mayne, 2). Walter serendipitously got his first big career break, and he questioned the sitting American President (Mayne, 2 and Shimeld, 35). "The interview went very well" (Shimeld, 35), and Walter Gibson garnered another huge feather in his professional cap. A year later, in 1921, The Philadelphia <i>Evening Ledger</i> hired Gibson as a full-time journalist (Mayne, 2). <br /><br />At the <i>Evening Ledger</i>, the twenty-four-year-old Walter Brown Gibson was given a greater chance to blossom than his former writing position with the <i>North American</i> (Mayne, 2). "The new job provided him [Gibson] an opportunity to be more creative, and he even began making crossword puzzles, which were a novelty back then" (Mayne, 2). Walter's popular daily column with the <i>North American</i> was called "After Dinner Tricks," wherein each column focused upon describing fully a single magic trick and its procedure, to be performed by readers in their homes (Mayne, 2). <i>After Dinner Tricks</i> had a very successful five-year run (Mayne, 2), and selections from it were compiled into a book by Walter, along with <i>Practical Card Tricks</i>, with both publications being printed and sold together, lucratively in 1921, with much fanfare (Shimeld, 35).<br /><br />At this time, Walter was again at it, writing his mystery stories for magazines such as <i>True Strange Stories</i> (Knowles, 1) and successfully selling them. Gibson in the very early 1920s (called The Jazz Age) hustled ferociously like the busy, busy bee he was, attending major magic conventions in Philadelphia (Knowles, 2) and hobnobbing with and writing about the world's biggest names in the sleight-of-hand business, including the immortal Harry Houdini, Howard Thurston, Harry Blackstone and the very much-esteemed Joseph Dunninger (Knowles, 2). Gibson was selected by Houdini and others to ghostwrite articles and books on magic (Knowles, 2). These books were published under numerous pennames (Knowles, 2) and they proved Walter Gibson to be a literary hotshot. <br /><br />From the mid-1920s to 1931, Walter wrote special syndicated features for the <i>Philadelphia Evening Ledger</i> (Knowles, 2). Gibson designed and contributed more than 2,000 crossword puzzles in the daily paper from 1924-1931 (Rauscher, 2). Walter was a brilliant and natural puzzle builder, and his work was very well respected in the United States because Gibson "…helped popularize the crossword puzzle for all time" (Rauscher, 2). Walter Gibson's other esteemed articles and featurettes for these papers included numerous and well-known IQ tests, riddles, brain-teasers, and articles on diverse subjects like human enigmas, miracles, card tricks, and games (Knowles, 2 and Rauscher, 2). Walter was the proverbial "man on fire," and his reputation as a versatile and highly skilled American writer was swiftly growing. Walter clearly was (at this point) on the rise, and his study of Greek and Latin at Colgate University had certainly not gone to waste…nor was his craft and deep insight of stage magic and illusion.<br /><br />During his early days as both magician and newspaperman, Gibson met mystery fiction's greatest ever writer, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, in June 1922 (Shimeld, 88). The encounter occurred "…at an annual S. A. M. dinner in the New York City McAlpin Hotel" (Shimeld, 88). It was Harry Houdini (a close mutual friend of both) who "…had introduced the two authors" (Shimeld, 88). Houdini, as a liaison, was thus responsible for one of the most historic and significant encounters in literary history. This was so because A. Conan Doyle was the world's leading and most revered writer of detective fiction during the late Nineteenth and early Twentieth Centuries (the sole and brilliant originator of Sherlock Holmes) and Gibson. They, a decade later, would single-handedly create <i>The Shadow</i> and would go on to become (in the eyes of many literary critics) Doyle's undisputed artistic successor. Did Walter Brown Gibson and Arthur Conan Doyle swap artistic ideas concerning the composition of detective fiction as they conversed in 1922? Though scarce on this exact meeting, documentary evidence does actually exist, and I plan to probe it further in future writings. Gibson’s personal and one and only interaction with Doyle was apparently a pleasant one, for no biographical information available counters this assumption, especially information written down by Gibson’s historically accurate scholar and scribe Thomas J. Shimeld. <br /><br />Gibson's thoughts on Houdini (however) are well noted concerning Walter's conference with A. C. <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjGJpsVtDno2Nc2gp1ThTSGHxpTAtsTDnrvZb4mxrh3xM_ZNCN-acw2DOrg0cV_S6A6VV7l2GdwzcsfBxDccfefLo17pfRKGIC15N1xEq_T-9RUiqCMT9Fx_LhmyMSbqsuuKhslsV5RynxDGIeC1rizSite59DQ8Q7d7YnLE19cZepATuE0qMD5cKnOvg=s705" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="705" data-original-width="475" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjGJpsVtDno2Nc2gp1ThTSGHxpTAtsTDnrvZb4mxrh3xM_ZNCN-acw2DOrg0cV_S6A6VV7l2GdwzcsfBxDccfefLo17pfRKGIC15N1xEq_T-9RUiqCMT9Fx_LhmyMSbqsuuKhslsV5RynxDGIeC1rizSite59DQ8Q7d7YnLE19cZepATuE0qMD5cKnOvg=w135-h200" width="135" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>The Shadow.</i> 1994 film. <br />Universal Pictures Co.</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br />Doyle. Gibson said in retrospection that Houdini presented him (to Doyle) as "an up and coming magical writer" (Shimeld, 88). "That was Houdini's way to flatter people when they deserved it. In return, he [Houdini] expected people to flatter him when he deserved it. Houdini was truly reciprocal…" (Shimeld, 88). It seems certain that Walter Gibson saw a somewhat opportunistic side of Houdini's personality, which Houdini, always the standout but careful salesman, shrewdly hid from his public. Gibson obviously did not let the petty side of Houdini's persona ever get the better of him, for they would both frequently collaborate on many stage magic and illusion projects together until Houdini, the world's best and most daring escape artist, died abruptly and unexpectedly on October 31, 1926 (Shimeld, 57).<br /><br />By 1931, America's Great Depression was in full swing, almost two years after its initial economic blight and catastrophe had swept the country. Every American citizen was in dire need of an escape from the exacerbating and painful misery of those troubled days. The country responded in three major ways. The first task would be for the country to ratify President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's dynamic New Deal programs, which would dramatically revitalize and modernize America's greatly diminished and obsolete socio-economic infrastructure. The second measure would be a drastic promotion of America's national sports, namely baseball, football, boxing, etc. It was safer and more productive for America to keep its population mentally preoccupied with the innocuous but meaningful national pastimes, rather than having its citizenry overwhelmed about widespread food shortages and unemployment. <br /><br />The third task to accomplish would be handled by America's pulp magazines. These were direct Twentieth Century descendants of the American dime magazines of the Nineteenth Century. This was blatantly reflected in the pulp magazines' prices, which almost always charged only 10 cents for each issue. "The very first [American] pulp magazine was made in 1882, and many different pulps ran till the 1950s" (Degnan, 1). The pulp magazines published many different genres of printed material, including true crime narratives, science fiction, tawdry and salacious sex stories, westerns, detective fiction, and sports stories (Degnan, 1). The publishers of these magazines would also do their part to keep the American mindset off of the doom and gloom of the 1930s and 1940s. Walter Brown Gibson would emerge from the proverbial shadows of obscurity and he would disappoint no one. <br /><br />Thus, for only a dime, any American could set themselves temporarily free of the terrific burdens of The Great Depression (and World War II) via purchasing a mystery or sports "pulp" by getting lost in an article or a fiction story. "Because pulps were so cheap and affordable, they were one of the main forms of escapist entertainment for the working class, especially since comic [books] and television did not yet exist" (Degnan, 1). Called pulps for the cheap sort of paper they were written on, they slowly changed the style and essence of American popular culture from the late 1800s to the mid-1900s. Gibson's <i>The Shadow</i> and Lester Dent's<i> Doc Savage</i> quickly and permanently became "pop" culture icons of superhero and mystery fiction, and American, and world audiences would become enthralled.<br /><br />So, in 1931, pulp publisher Street and Smith asked to meet Gibson at their New York City offices to give form and substance to <i>The Shadow</i> (Knowles, 3) who was, at that point, only a grim, ghastly and disembodied voice, who had served to narrate the numerous mystery tales of its well-known Detective Radio Drama series (Knowles, 3). The radio show's narrator was <i>The Shadow</i>. But since the phantasmal voice of the radio show's narrator proved more popular than the actual show with listeners, Street and Smith decided it would be more lucrative to create a detective magazine using the narrator's name, <i>The Shadow</i> (Knowles, 3).<br /><br />"Gibson happened to be at the right place at the right time…" (Mayne, 1). "The plucky young writer [Gibson] was in New York pitching one of his true-crime stories to the editors, and they wondered if he had the potential to give life to their new idea" (Mayne, 1). As the interview progressed, "…Gibson told them [the editors] about a character he'd been imagining, who had 'Houdini's penchant for escapes, with the hypnotic power of Tibetan mystics, plus the knowledge shared by Thurston and Blackstone in the creation of illusions,'" (Mayne, 1). Smith and Street's editors responded to Gibson's proposal with genuine curiosity (Mayne, 1), and they chose to "…gave him [Gibson] a shot" (Mayne, 1).<br /><br />With Walter Brown Gibson's first composed pulp novel <i>The Living Shadow</i> finished, his answer to Smith and Street's demands would be total and uncontroversial. The Living Shadow was 75,000 words long, and it sold out immediately (Mayne, 1). In April of 1931, with one fell swoop, Gibson had done what no other writer before him ever did, and perhaps, even dared to imagine (Shimeld, 63). Gibson had single-handedly launched the Superhero Age with the publication of the first <i>Shadow</i> Magazine. <br /><br />Gibson had entirely surpassed Smith and Street's expectations because, after Gibson's second Shadow novel also rapidly emptied off bookshelves, his editors decided at Smith and Street to revamp Walter Gibson's contract (Mayne, 1) and step up production on <i>The Shadow Magazine</i>, by changing it from a quarterly publication to a monthly one (Mayne, 1). Gibson had no trouble keeping up with the amped-up writing schedule, and he even exceeded expectations again when <i>The Shadow Magazine</i> went from being a monthly magazine in 1931 to a bi-monthly one in 1932 (Mayne, 1). Walter Gibson's intensive creativity was perpetually on fire. And his superbly diligent work discipline, instilled in him by his aged father, Alfred, also had a great deal to do with Walter B. Gibson's success.<br /><br /><i>The Shadow</i> as a fictional character was promptly and effectively given a colorful origin story and mythology by Gibson (please see the novel <i>The Shadow Unmasks</i> for more information on this topic), who penned all of his Shadow novels under the <i>nom de plume</i> of "Maxwell Grant." <i>The Shadow</i> was, in fact, a WWI superspy and fighter ace named Kent Allard, who, after The Great War, left Europe for Asia. Allard studied there with numerous Hindu and Tibetan gurus and holy men, learning various arcane martial and mystic arts, including yoga, karate, meditation, hypnotism, etc. Allard was also a brilliant college student who deeply studied history, psychology, mathematics, and linguistics. In fact, Gibson's Shadow was the superhero world's foremost authority (perhaps inspired by A. C. Doyle's Sherlock Holmes) on ciphers, codes, and secret writing (please see <i>The Shadow</i> novel <i>The Chain of Death</i> and others).<br /><br />Meanwhile, Gibson had Allard fake his death in South America and return (incognito) to the United States. Kent Allard (being primarily based on legendary British explorer, surveyor, and cartographer Percy H. Fawcett and famed American escape artist, daredevil, and stage magician Harry Houdini) donned a black slouch fedora hat, black and red cape, and a sinister red scarf (to shield his face from the public) to begin his vigilante war against crime. New York City was the helm of <i>The Shadow's</i> operations (please see <i>The Living Shadow</i> and other novels for more information about this topic), and <i>The Shadow</i> would use his amazing arsenal of eclectic skills to taunt and subvert the criminal underworld, especially when using his phantasmal, haunting laugh in the presence of crooks and lethal, cutthroat masterminds.<br /><br />The Shadow was a master of stealth, spymastering, and certainly gunslinging. In the hit radio show, sponsored mainly by Blue Coal, he was also a psychic warrior who could "cloud men's minds" (see also the intro to <i>The Shadow Radio Show</i>, starring Orson Welles, Agnes Moorehead, and others). Allard assembled a covert and valued international spy network and took on the very vaunted moniker of <i>The Shadow</i>. He also brilliantly (under Gibson's direction, of course) engineered various aliases that <i>The Batman</i> (his most direct historical and literary descendant) could never keep track of. <i>The Shadow</i> was called <i>Ying Ko</i> by the Chinese, <i>The Dark Eagle</i> (because of his very noticeable aquiline profile and jet-black hair), <i>The Knight of Darkness</i>, <i>The Dark Avenger,</i> <i>The Master of Darkness</i>, and Lamont Cranston (a wealthy New York City playboy who bore a striking, but coincidental resemblance to Allard himself), just to name a few. <i>The Shadow</i> used his keenly developed spy abilities and uncanny occult powers to battle evildoers and criminals of all sorts, from nefarious mad scientists and deadly mob bosses to lethal, cunning, and fanatical spies and others. All tales and foes Gibson created for <i>The Shadow</i> ubiquitously fell into the category of what literary scholars now call "supercrime," something wondrously forged by Arthur Conan Doyle in his Sherlock Holmes tales, specifically where Holmes dangerously squares off against Professor Moriarty in <i>The Final Solution</i> and <i>The Valley of Fear</i>. No matter how difficult or bleak circumstances ever became for The Shadow while in the midst of combating evil, he always used his mind and grit to defeat his many, many enemies. Arthur Conan Doyle invented supercrime in his Sherlock Holmes novels, and stories and Walter Brown Gibson perfected supercrime in his Shadow ones.<br /><br /><i>The Shadow</i> skulked silently and secretly about the hidden corners of human vision, only to deftly and mercilessly pounce on and eliminate his venomous adversaries. He did shoot his .45 caliber pistols only when being fired upon. Remember, the 1930s and 1940s America was the brutal era of vicious and homicidal gangsters like Al Capone, John Dillinger, Baby Face Nelson, Bonnie and Clyde, and Mickey Cohen. The common folk of America, stung badly by the economic hardships of The Great Depression, yearned for a crime-fighter whose sense of justice was certain and whose ability to dispense some was unobstructed by political and social grandstanding. <br /><br />Walter Gibson's Shadow fit the role perfectly, and <i>The Shadow</i> took his crusade around the world to end evil wherever he and his agents had found it. Lester Dent's starkly intrepid and super-intelligent Doc Savage, called <i>The Man of Bronze</i>, was also a Smith and Street superhero character, who used his super-strength and outstanding intellect to battle "super-criminals" on a global level, in a manner very similar to that of <i>The Shadow</i>, written by Walter B. Gibson. <i>The Shadow</i> was a crime-fighter who pushed his mind and body to their limits to adequately confront crooks and to turn them on their heads. <i>The Shadow</i> stories of Gibson had compelling, well-written plots and characterizations, great descriptive scenes and language, and terse and snappy dialogue. In the pages of <i>The Shadow Magazine</i>, Gibson was on a literary roll, and his fans were routinely left with their mouths agape. Gibson's high quality of writing spoke for itself.<br /><br /><i><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhD6XIilyzgPlmCH-aG7mEcKVgGsWM8RphEaLXJ2ZLK6O3YHkVb6HCoerR5BtolCMGpvY-u_ya06_QhrelaUpinbxB7Fv_po4-zHwUMWBPAXt6JDuBgc9OrujWJPgW9jDsRKUgLh5v0otwNsqtkLxtgbLoU4rqhBSN18hQw9uUCQQgFvwtAV33-93KQGg=s739" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="739" data-original-width="500" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhD6XIilyzgPlmCH-aG7mEcKVgGsWM8RphEaLXJ2ZLK6O3YHkVb6HCoerR5BtolCMGpvY-u_ya06_QhrelaUpinbxB7Fv_po4-zHwUMWBPAXt6JDuBgc9OrujWJPgW9jDsRKUgLh5v0otwNsqtkLxtgbLoU4rqhBSN18hQw9uUCQQgFvwtAV33-93KQGg=w136-h200" width="136" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Walter B. Gibson, 1933. <br />Photo courtesy of <br />Smith-Corona, Inc., <br />all rights reserved, 2021</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br />The Shadow</i> was (from a literary perspective) the most entirely nuanced and original superhero in pulp and comic book fiction. Perhaps, after ninety incredible years, <i>The Shadow</i> still is. Historical archivist and investigator Aleta Mayne notes that "Other crime-fighting vigilantes---particularly <i>Batman</i>---cut their capes from the same cloth as him" (Mayne, 1). Gibson's stellar run on The Shadow lasted fifteen brilliantly dynamic and prodigious years (Mayne, 1). He authored 283 <i>Shadow</i> pulp novels out of the current 326 <i>Shadow</i> novels (Knowles, 1 and Mayne, 1). This figure amounts to a total of almost 87% of all <i>Shadow</i> novels (including novellas and short stories, also). Gibson's internationally renowned prolificacy garnered him the personal paid endorsement of American typewriter manufacturer Corona in 1933 (Knowles, 3). Why should anyone be surprised? During Walter Brown Gibson's superbly productive lifetime, he wrote: 187 books (primarily mystery fiction and instructional books for stage magic, but also various books on history and the occult), 668 newspaper and encyclopedia articles, 48 separate and syndicated feature newspaper columns, 394 comic books and strips and 147 collaborative radio scripts (Mayne, 2-3). The <i>Washington Post</i> approximated in 1978 that Walter Brown Gibson had written a total of 29 million words during his lengthy writing career (Mayne, 3). Walter B. Gibson was (as a master scribe specifically) no slouch at all.<br /><br />Years after Walter's death in December of 1985, his son Robert (a very-esteemed medical doctor and psychiatrist from Maryland) would comment, "My father first wrote of <i>The Shadow</i> in 1931, when I was just six years old. His workroom was next to my bedroom. The writing schedule demanded almost round-the-clock typing as I went to sleep. It was pleasant to know he was nearby" (Gibson, ix). Robert Gibson continued, "My bedtime stories were the plots of <i>Shadow</i> novels in their embryonic stage. Of course, other stories poured from my father's fertile, creative mind. Among them were the adventures of a remarkable family of fish, which should have been published" (Gibson, ix). Even during a hectic workday, Walter's very kind heart and quite a mischievous mind never divided themselves. Walter had shrewdly made use of his family time by spending his evening hours eagerly relating his Shadow story ideas and characters to young Robert while simultaneously expanding on them. Walter was a father firstly and a writer secondly. Work would not interfere with Walter's family life. This is because Walter had skillfully managed to marry the two into a benevolently cohesive and well-organized whole. Could Shakespeare himself have achieved such a feat in his own lifetime? One can only hypothesize about that possibility…<br /><br />Writing full-length novels at breakneck speed certainly was not easy, even for a thoroughbred wordsmith like Walter B. Gibson. But Walter always managed to stay well ahead of his deadlines (Shimeld, 70). Walter did not use a specific literary formula for composing his <i>Shadow</i> stories. Instead, Walter would develop story concepts organically. These made <i>The Shado</i>w novels generally unpredictable with their plotlines, producing narratives much more suspenseful and exciting for readers. Walter was a master technician of science fiction and mystery literature, and he was not a commonplace assembly-line writer. "Plots would come to Gibson from any number of places: newspaper articles, a paragraph in the encyclopedia, anywhere" (Shimeld, 71). Walter was a painstaking literary researcher who premeditated storylines way before their due dates (Shimeld, 71). This very often entailed Gibson personally visiting different American cities and carefully recording their place names and geographical landscapes (Shimeld, 71) so that <i>Shadow</i> books were very realistic in as many details as possible for readers. Walter's approach to composing made <i>The Shadow</i> a much more national literary and popular culture icon. <i>The Shadow</i> appeared in all major American cities from coast to coast, cities that Walter Gibson intentionally and physically traversed. <i>Shadow</i> fans in Chicago, New York City, and Phoenix, Arizona, would be more motivated to read <i>Shadow</i> pulps because <i>The Shadow's</i> stories were taking place right in their own hometowns. <i>"The Shadow</i>…traveled to Philadelphia, Boston, Chicago, Miami, and New Orleans" (Shimeld, 71). Smith and Street Publishing commercially motivated this "…so that the company might publicize the magazine in those areas" (Shimeld, 71). Money in the world of print media decides which way that particular planet always spins. Smith and Street was very effective in using Walter Gibson's <i>The Shadow</i> to efficiently fill its own publishing house's coffers at every twist and turn.<br /><br />Despite all the toil that Walter was experiencing as a writer of fiction prose, Gibson was doing what he loved most, writing yarns as original and unique as are the ripples in the sea. Walter Brown Gibson also enjoyed getting paid for his services, saying, "Output means money. If you don't write stories, you can't sell them" (Shimeld, 70). But it was Gibson's salary from Smith and Street that was perennial of secondary importance to him. Walter positively lived and loved to write, whether the material was fiction or not. <br /><br />The art of writing seemed to elevate Gibson's soul and mind to intellectually and emotionally more lofty and deeper places and conditions. Gibson found that the aesthetic aspects of writing mentally made time come to a sort of stop (Shimeld, 117), and these aspects of writing enabled him to think in much more visionary and richer ways (Shimeld, 117). For Walter B. Gibson, composing words for his novels transported his spirit and memory to an unearthly, inspired place. This was a realm where his ideas for language and storytelling relieved his psyche and his body of any emotional and physical weaknesses or hindrances they both may have had (Shimeld, 117). Writing for Gibson was both an act of love and an act of catharsis (Shimeld, 117). Writing a story of fiction was also something that suggested supernatural causation (Shimeld, 117). Walter took the craft of writing seriously, and he was consciously and creatively positing that writing was quite likely a divine act, one in which it connected him to his Christian God. <br /><br />"Memory does not only contain things we remember from the past. It contains events of the future as well…Often, when writing mysteries, I picked up ideas psychically of things that really did happen in the future,"' Gibson related to journalist Claire Huff in a 1976 interview (Shimeld, 117). For example, in the 1942 comic strip <i>Bill Barnes America's Air Ace</i>, Walter Gibson (who was guest scripting for Bill Barnes at the time) has one of his characters, Doctor Blannard, reveals to Bill Barnes that he has just invented an explosive device that harnesses U-235 to be used against one of Bill Barnes' enemies (Shimeld, 117). Walter was contacted by Federal officials immediately after that, and he was informed to refrain from mentioning U-235 in any of his future works (Shimeld, 117). Walter B. Gibson fully cooperated with the agents "'in the interests of war security'" (Shimeld, 117). Thus, at the height of America's involvement in WWII, Gibson had accurately predicted the atomic bomb's creation three years before anyone else had (Shimeld, 117). Other such psychic incidents concerning W. B. Gibson were not isolated ones at all (Shimeld, 117-118) and are fully and factually recorded. Ironically, though, Gibson (the very cynical and perceptive stage magician) did not identify himself as a mystic. He identified himself as a creative artist who personally believed in God and the supernatural; however abstract and sublime these notions are for the human mind to grasp.<br /><br />During turbulent years of World War II (1941-1945), Gibson kept the sci-fi-adventure story genre thriving for Americans by scripting one excellent <i>Shadow</i> novel after the other. "Up until March of 1943 he [Gibson] pumped out 24 pulps per year…" (Mayne, 3) "…but he did eventually slow back down to one per month" (Mayne, 3). By 1947, Walter B. Gibson was writing only one <i>Shadow</i> novel every other month (Mayne, 3). Then, by the autumn of 1948, Gibson was writing <i>The Shadow</i> Magazine was a quarterly until the summer of 1949, when Street and Smith Publishing finally terminated publication of <i>The Shadow</i>. Increasing competition from comic books and a concerted effort by right-wing extremists in the American government such as Senator Joseph McCarthy made selling pulp magazines in the United States very difficult. As the year 1950 approached, <i>The Shadow's</i> days seemed to evaporate. After, Gibson sued Street and Smith for his royalties on <i>The Shadow</i> amounting to $40,000.00 (Knowles, 5). Walter Gibson's creation <i>The Shadow</i> ceased to be…or so everyone thought. Gibson (by the late 1940s) had already moved on to other writing projects…but <i>The Shadow</i> was not dead…, and neither was his creator, "Walt" Gibson.<br /><br />This temporary lapse in American pulp superheroes caused a gaping hole in the genre's writers' market. It is no historical coincidence that English writer and former officer for British Naval Intelligence Ian Fleming (Britannica, 1) emerged on the global literary scene by debuting his famous <i>Agent 007 James Bond</i> in 1953 (Britannica, 1). James Bond was the chronological successor pulp hero to American ones <i>The Shadow</i> and <i>Doc Savage</i>, repeating Walter Brown Gibson's pattern with Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes in 1931. In April of that year, <i>The Shadow</i> had made his grand premiere on the world's stage. His entrance was bolstered by the fact that Doyle's Sherlock Holmes had stopped being actively written and published by 1927 (Gardiner, 323). Doyle himself died in July of 1930 (Gardiner, 323). <i>The Shadow Magazine's</i> circulation numbers hence benefitted from Sherlock Holmes' absence from the literary world. But this fact (in no way) undermines the quality of <i>The Shadow'</i>s literary significance or Walter B. Gibson's standing as a writer of great yarns. <i>The Great Detective's</i> influence on <i>The Master of Darkness</i> will forever be debated in literary circles and comic book conventions. And only a reader can decide for him or herself which character they prefer over the other.<br /><br />From 1946-1961, Walter Brown Gibson was on the move again. "He [Gibson] was moving more and more into the book field, while at the same time (in the 1950s) creating true crime stories for <i>Fact Detective Magazine</i>" (Rauscher, 4). The Shadow was for fifteen consecutive years Walter's main source of income. Gibson had some severe trouble transitioning from pulp writer to book writer. Unfortunately for Gibson, the reasons for this were clearly not professional ones, and they were familial ones.<br /><br />As <i>The Shadow</i> and his alter ego<i> Kent Allard</i> temporarily retreated to the popular culture background, Walter Gibson was slowly and silently experiencing the painful throes of his second failing marriage, to one Julia Gibson. Walter did not expect his wife to leave him (Shimeld, 98). The main culprit seems to have been Walter's artistic aloofness, which steadily increased as he grew older (Shimeld, 98). Walter's divorce became inevitable as the emotional disconnection between him and Julia widened over the years of their relationship. "By December of 1948, Julia and [Walter] Gibson were divorced" (Shimeld, 97). Walter fell into a deep melancholy under the hefty strain of his imploded marriage to Julia and his gradually diminishing income (Shimeld, 98). "With no time to prepare mentally for a break-up, Gibson plummeted into a depression" (Shimeld, 98). <div><br /></div><div>Consequently, Walter Gibson moved into his beloved son Robert's apartment, living there for three months (Shimeld, 99), before hitting the magic circuit again with his close and much-valued friend, Harry Blackstone, Senior, (Shimeld, 99). Many years later, in a retrospective interview, Walter's son, Robert Gibson, commented, "It [Walter's magic tour with Blackstone] just turned his whole life around" (Shimeld, 100). Walter would show up at Blackstone's shows and sell souvenir magic books (Shimeld, 100). Walter would also act as the critic for Blackstone's performances, being sure to ask all the shows' patrons what they liked or did not like about Blackstone's presentations of legerdemain (Shimeld, 100). The work and exposure to stage magic substantially bolstered Walter's horribly beleaguered spirits, and Gibson and his family would always remain very grateful to Blackstone the Magician for his kindness and loyalty (Shimeld, 100).<br /><br />Walter did not remain in the doldrums for long. "On August 24, 1949, Gibson married his third wife, Litzka Raymond Gibson" (Knowles, 8-9). Litzka was the widowed wife of the very talented stage magician, <i>The Great Raymond</i> (Knowles, 9). Litzka was an excellent harpist, singer, and magic performer (Knowles, 9 and Shimeld, 120-121). "Litzka was a devoted wife who was constantly attending to Gibson…" (Shimeld, 120). The numerous "…encounters with Litzka's graceful singing, and beautiful presence would always have a positive effect on Gibson's mood…" (Shimeld, 120). Walter Brown Gibson frequently called his third and final wife "Angel" (Shimeld, 120). "The two [Walter and Litzka together] shared a life of magic and a love for the mysterious" (Shimeld, 120). Litzka and Walter Gibson's radiant and enduring love thrived for thirty-six healthy and romantic years until Walter's passing in 1985. Walter knew he had found his true love in Litzka, and the two did not part for as long as their lengthy marriage lasted. Walter doted on Litzka as she would dote on him while they were together. <br /><br />Once Gibson had snapped loose from his mid-life funk, he resumed his writing career with vigor and skill. Walter's practical attitudes, apart from his exalted ones, were equally important to him. Walter once commented, "…one source of inspiration is a good, swift, self-delivered kick in the pants" (Rauscher, 5-6). Gibson was once accused of not needing the inspiration to fuel his work on fictional and factual prose (Rauscher, 6). The gentleman said to Gibson, "Maybe you don't need much inspiration, writing for your market" (Rauscher, 6). Walter masterfully responded, "I need just as much as if I were writing for another, because I'm not writing for any market. I have always written for readers, and I have found it valuable to continue that policy. It keeps a writer from going stale, enables him to follow any trend, and sometimes to start [a new] one" (Rauscher, 6). Translated critically for literature and history, Walter was saying that (concerning his writing) he wrote for himself firstly, and for others, secondly. Walter was writing his fiction pieces and non-fiction ones for the common man and woman. No one reader for Gibson was better than another to him, with the possible exception of himself. No one reader was less critical for Gibson than any other, again, with the same possible exception. This type of work ethic clearly imitated Walter's egalitarian views of people. His son, Robert, once said, "My father knew every famous magician and had personal contact with many prominent writers, but their prestige or prominence never drew him. He could spend an hour talking with the bellman of a hotel. He simply enjoyed people" (Gibson, x). But Walter Brown Gibson also shrewdly reasoned that if writers cannot please themselves with the individual quality of their work, then they aren't able to please anyone else with their writing, too.<br /><br />Deadlines from editors never impressed Gibson, simply because his insatiable dedication to writing obliterated deadlines with disturbing regularity. Gibson never missed a single deadline. And yet his writing, whether creative or factual, habitually was thoughtful, intriguing, lucid, and well worded. What more could an editor ask of their writer?<br /><br />Walter's dear friend, the Episcopal priest and professional magician, William Rauscher, said of Gibson, "Walter was a man who chose interesting side roads instead of a direct route" (Rauscher, 6). When walking (or driving a car), Walter chronically chose the most beautiful or interesting path of travel rather than the most convenient one (Rauscher, 6). Gibson was, after all, an artist at heart and consistently so.<br /><br />In 1957, Walter Brown Gibson was an editor at <i>Mystery Digest</i> (Shimeld, 127). In post-WWII America, Gibson authored two crime novels,<i> A Blonde for Murder, </i>and <i>Looks That Kill</i>, published between 1946-1948 (Rauscher, 5). These mystery novels sold well, and they are still actively in print today. As the 1960s came into swing, Walter successfully engaged in many profitable writing projects. At the behest of legendary series creator Rod Serling, Gibson scripted (in 1967) original stories for two volumes of the prose-anthologized <i>Twilight Zone</i> (Shimeld, 88), and Gibson repeated a similar feat for <i>The Man from U.N.C.L.E.</i>, (Shimeld, 88). <br /><br />In the early 1960s, Walter composed five novels of the critically acclaimed young adult Biff Brewster books series for the Grosset and Dunlap Publishing Co. (Tollin, 127). He returned to The Shadow with a vengeance in 1963, writing the all-new <i>The Shadow Returns</i> (Tollin, 127). Gibson's comeback <i>Shadow</i> novel was a huge hit, and it unofficially inaugurated the "Silver Age of Superheroes" (1963-1980). A new, vibrant renaissance swept American letters in superhero fiction. Walter B. Gibson and other sci-fi-visionaries such as Marvel Comic's Stan Lee and Jack Kirby were all responsible for it. Walter Gibson was back in the big leagues, but, of course, he had never actually left them. He was simply riding the crest of an incredible literary wave in the 1960s that (genre-wise) had slumped badly to its bottom in the late 1940s. Gibson proved to be an excellent surfer. Walter Brown Gibson would never slide to the literary bottom again. Gibson's unceasing perseverance would keep him afloat for the rest of his life.<br /><br />Gibson authored a number of popular books on the paranormal and stage magic, including 1966's <i>The Complete Illustrated Book of the Psychic Sciences</i>, co-authored with his wife Litzka, <i>The Complete Illustrated Book of Card Magic</i>, in 1969, <i>Secrets of Magic</i> in 1973, <i>The New Magician's Manual</i> in 1975 and 1980's <i>Big Book of Magic</i>, (Knowles, 7-8). The tremendous esteem of Walter Gibson's writing and sage-deep wisdom of legerdemain and illusion earned him the highest honors by the very respected <i>American Academy of Magical Arts</i> (Knowles, 8), amounting to a Literary Fellowship in 1971 (Knowles, 8) and a Master's Fellowship in 1979 (Knowles, 8).<br /><br />After 1970, Walter Brown Gibson was not done with his most illustrious literary creation, The Shadow. In 1979 he wrote and published for Conde Nast Publications another adventure featuring <i>The Dark Avenger</i>, entitled <i>The Riddle of the Rangoon Ruby</i>, for <i>The Shadow Scrapbook</i> (Tollin, 127). Gibson also penned the 1980 <i>Shadow</i> tale (also for Conde Nast) <i>Blackmail Bay</i> in <i>The Duende History of The Shadow Magazine</i> (Tollin, 127). Walter Brown Gibson's last published superhero tale came in late December 1980, when he wrote for DC Comics <i>The Batman Encounters</i>---Gray Face (Tollin, 127). <i>The Batman</i> short story Gibson scribed was roughly 6,000 words, and it was printed in DC Comics' exciting <i>Detective Comics</i> Issue Number 500 (Tollin, 127). These excellent prose featurettes firmly demonstrate that Walter Brown Gibson, even in his eighties, had not lost his golden touch for composing highly compelling and riveting works of mystery and adventure fiction.<br /><br />In 1966, seventeen years after marrying Litzka in 1949, Walter and his beloved bride bought a house in Eddyville, New York (Knowles, 8). The two-story Victorian mansion was initially built in 1757 (Shimeld, 128), but it was later expanded over the years by several different occupants (Shimeld, 128). The Eddyville House rapidly emerged as "…the center for their intellectual and productive life" (Knowles, 8). The Gibsons together meticulously amassed and archived their vast library of over 9,000 books, volumes concerning history, metaphysics, stage magic, language, art, and other assorted subjects (Shimeld, 128). Walter and Litzka would use this library to its fullest potential as writing and reference material to compose their many assorted literary efforts (Knowles, 8). New York State was the focal point of Walter Gibson's life for many decades, so it would remain until his very end.<br /><br />Walter (as a historian of magic) in the late 1960s came to be interested in Eddyville's rich maritime and shipbuilding past (Shimeld, 141-142). Gibson was inspired by the picturesque Rondout Creek, which his Eddyville home directly overlooked (Shimeld, 141). Walter Brown Gibson joined the local Delaware and Hudson Canal Historical Society (Shimeld, 141). In December of 1970, Walter was designated assistant editor of <i>Then & Now</i>, the historical journal of "D and H," (Shimeld, 142). In the early 1970s, Gibson was elected and served as the Delaware and Hudson Canal Historical Society's president (Shimeld, 142). Under Walter Gibson's tenure, D & H's Museum was created in April of 1971 (Shimeld, 143). "Gibson was well known and well respected within the society" (Shimeld, 142). "He [Gibson] would often perform magic shows at various functions" (Shimeld, 142). Gibson was partaking in a richly fulfilling life that was at once positive and spiritually beneficial for him and others. In all that Walter Gibson did, the creation of artistic and cultural achievements haunted and motivated his soul to move, act, and fashion. Neil Armstrong left his footprints on the Moon. Walter left his footprints in the countless imaginations of writers and artists who were all inspired by him, stage magicians or comic book artists and storytellers. In this capacity, Walter Brown Gibson would even outfox Time itself, and in the process, Gibson would become immortal. Walter's contemporary artists such as the magnificent <i>Dick Tracy</i> creator Chester Gould and later comics and graphics art genius Matt Wagner would all owe something to Walter, whether it was artistic radiance or intellectual variety. Gibson’s stamp of superhero novelty is impressed all over the world and especially in the United States. <br /><br />Readers should keep in mind Walter is an utterly hard fellow to historically classify, mainly due to the immutable fact that he was an American original. Walter Gibson's titanic reverence for history, art, and language always lies at each of the centers of his <i>Shadow</i> stories, even if all of these elements are not easily apparent in <i>The Shadow</i>. Walter was a consummate literary professional who took great pride in fooling his Shadow fans with literary subtleties and unexpected and brazenly clever story endings. Gibson was a stage magician after all and readers of <i>The Shadow</i> should always be prepared for the unpredictable. Gibson was never static or mundane in his life or in his personality and his <i>Shadow</i> work reflects this truth overwhelmingly. <br /><br />The historical narrative of Walter Gibson does not end here. I have previously mentioned the very talented and accomplished British pulp writers Sir Arthur Conan Doyle and Ian Fleming in this text. They are both listed as topics of interest in the Encyclopedia Americana (alphabetically and accordingly) for their fine literary efforts, namely for their respective creations of Sherlock Holmes and James Bond. Walter Brown Gibson is nowhere to be found in the <i>Encyclopedia Americana</i> for his literary activities as the author and the originator of <i>The Shadow</i>. But, ironically, Walter Brown Gibson is listed in the <i>Encyclopedia America</i> as a historical researcher, as the author of Harry Houdini's biographical entry (Gibson, 455). By hook or by crook, the very, very persistent and habile Gibson would not be overlooked by history. If Walter's superb skills as a composer of fiction were to be overlooked by some, his standout assets for writing non-fiction would not be neglected by others. The short article he writes of Houdini's life is properly detailed and organized. Gibson's writing hits all the high notes, and its subject matter is succinctly communicated and contextualized. Walter Brown Gibson was truly a literary force with which to be reckoned.<br /><br />Walter Brown Gibson was a man of great personal conviction. He fought and hacked his own swath through the metaphorically bitter weeds, mire, and undergrowth of life. We must remember Walter Brown Gibson's father, Alfred C. Gibson, was a very down-to-earth and pragmatic businessman who was both hardworking and forward-looking. But Alfred was a man who dealt in and thrived from involving himself in facts and non-abstract truths. He was not one to obsess over fanciful matters. Incidentally, Walter Gibson's son, Robert W. Gibson, was a driven, humane, and very competent man of science. Robert Gibson was a man, who like his grandfather Alfred, was not one who dealt in the ethereal realms of fancy and fiction. Perhaps it was his job as a committed and empirically-grounded thinker and psychiatrist that made Robert not indulge in artistic activities, as his father Walter was prone? Historians and others are only left to speculate.<br /><br />What is clear and self-evident is that Walter was certainly not a man who wasted the rich and inventive imagination God had given to him. Walter Brown Gibson was also a man of action who did not let the grass grow under his feet, especially when earning a living as a writer. He was ambitious enough and clever enough as a man to successfully weave his love of stage magic, history, mystery tales, and wordplay into a mighty and healthy vehicle for making money. His literary legacy as a pulp novelist, true-crime reporter, word puzzle maker, and magic historian unambiguously speaks volumes to Gibson's commitment to himself and others that the human mind was itself a magical instrument, whose limitations are both largely unknown and untested. Walter's feline-like hunger to feed the human mind's curiosity for higher learning, riddles and mysteries was a firm and fixed testament that Walter knew from his earliest age that human beings were beings who had to challenge themselves against riddles and puzzles in order to achieve self-discovery and self-actualization. One's mind could never be idle to gain wisdom for Gibson. A healthy human brain for Gibson was one that questioned the world around it through sound introspection, philosophical debate, and artistic and literary activity, specifically reading and writing. Walter's prolific output as a stage magician, adventure novelist, and word puzzle builder fulfilled much of his quest to awaken the wonder in peoples' souls. For Walter Brown Gibson, a dull mind was one that never forced itself to think. Walter was not boring nor was he unoriginal, be it as a man or as a thinker. <br /><br />Walter left his family's hallowed ground of Colgate University before he could graduate from there, primarily because of his fierce and feisty self-confidence in himself as a writer and as a magician. We know this because Walter's uncle Frank Gibson was a very respected professor of Greek at Colgate (Mayne, 3). At the same time, Walter's brother Theodore Gibson became a much-lauded instructor there in mathematics (Mayne, 3). Not receiving his college degree from Colgate University did not wound Walter in any way, spiritually or otherwise. Although Walter did not conform to many of his family's norms or expectations, he did inherit from Alfred his tireless work ethic and his penchant for honesty and decency. Walter, in his 88 years of earthly life, never had any conflicts with the law whatsoever. This also speaks favorably for Walter's character.<br /><br />Walter Gibson was not a spiritually or morally faultless man who inhabited a cosmologically perfect universe. Walter did have some minor personality flaws of his own. Gibson's biographer Thomas J. Shimeld writes of Walter, "He was considered by many magicians to be the '"foremost authority on magic in the world'" (Shimeld, 137). Shimeld continues, "Gibson knew so much about the history of magic, for he lived through the first golden age of the art; no one would argue against his word, even if his word wasn't totally fact" (Shimeld, 137). Walter Brown Gibson, rightly considered the elder scholar-statesman of American stage magic, was, at times, a self-ordained know-it-all. No one can reasonably or factually deny that Walt Gibson was one of the world's most well-read magicians on the history of prestidigitation. But his ego did get the better of him on more than one occasion, precisely when it came to his chosen field of expertise. Walter being his consistently amicable and talkative chatter-box self, always had a yarn to weave. This includes Walter's personal memories of stage magic and stage magicians.<br /><br />Walter thought any student of stage magic would never argue against his very worthy and capable talent and reputation (Shimeld, 138). But some did (Shimeld, 138). It was Walter's belief that they were not personally there to witness the events as he had been there to see them, so who were they to challenge him? Yet Walter (persistently the cunning master of misdirection) would demonstrate to them his individual recollections of the facts in a historically half-true context and in the form of a biographically half-true but entertaining story (Shimeld, 138). Walter was not above embellishment. And because Walter could and frequently did charm the hearts of many cynical audience members, he was more than often able to prove his point about a particular aspect of stage magic without offending or discouraging the most hardened of critics (Shimeld, 138). If Walter had a point of debate to prove in a discussion of legerdemain, he did so with skill, gusto, and subtlety. Gibson was a magician, once and always.<br /><br />Gibson was the middle son of his father Alfred's second marriage. Alfred Cornelius Gibson's first marriage yielded three healthy children, two daughters, and a son (Shimeld, 11). Alfred C. Gibson's second wife, May Whidden Gibson, brought forth three healthy sons, Walter Brown Gibson (Shimeld, 11). Although Walter was married numerous times (three to be exact), unlike Alfred, he was the father to just one child, Doctor Robert W. Gibson (Shimeld, 88).<br /><br />Walter spent the happy, latter years of his life performing magic shows in and around Eddyville, New York, and elsewhere. He was a frequent guest at major comic book conventions in the United States in both the 1970s and until the early 1980s. Walter was also a major participant and lecturer at national stage magic conventions, who often creatively collaborated with his dearly cherished spouse Litzka. Although Walter gave up his habitual and unhealthy cigarette-smoking regimen (at Litzka's prodding) in the 1950s (Shimeld, 127), he did put on much weight from the 1970s forward. By the middle 1980s, Walter, who was often sedentary, was experiencing significant heart difficulties (Shimeld, 151). Walter B. Gibson suffered a horrible stroke on November 7, 1985 (Shimeld, 151). This stroke left him both blind and without the ability to speak (Shimeld, 151). Despite his body and mind being devastated by this vicious stroke, Walter still had his wits about him (Shimeld, 151). But the curtains were drawing to close on Gibson's life. Walter Brown Gibson, the renowned creator of modern superhero fiction and stage magician of the first rank, died on the fateful morning of December 6, 1985, at Benedictine Hospital, in Kingston, New York (Shimeld, 151). Walter was 88 years old.<br /><br />Though the great man and artist was dead in body, Walter's soul, reputation, and legacy thrive. Litzka and Robert W. Gibson were devastated by Walter's tragic loss. And so was the world. Walter Brown Gibson's family, friends, and fans were legions, and none would ever turn their backs on him or his memory. In the world's two realms of popular literature and stage magic, Gibson firmly remains both an eternal and titanic hurricane of blinding and burning artistic illumination. His light is both far-reaching and unyielding. Writers of superhero fiction, such as myself, personally feel his huge loss and presence, as much in the twenty-first century as fictionalists and stage magicians have felt them in the twentieth. So Walter remains what he always wanted to be: a loving, productive, and innovative writer, performer, and family man…one who loved America and one who loved life.<br /><br />Walter Brown Gibson was buried in upstate New York at the Montrepose Cemetery of Kingston (Shimeld, 153). He was given an Episcopal Christian funeral and burial service, conducted by his close friend and fellow stage magician, the Reverend Canon William V. Rauscher (Shimeld, 153). <br /><br />When Walter Brown Gibson died in early December 1985, many historians felt that America's last living link to The Golden Age of Magic was gone (Shimeld, 156). This may well have been true. It could also be very smartly and historically wise to say that when Walter B. Gibson passed from this Earth, one of America's last living links to "The Golden Age of Superheroes" (1931-1950) vanished as well. But what serious and responsible students of history must realize is that though the man is no longer with us, his God-given spirit and mind still are relentlessly pulling us towards him to think, create, and persevere. In doing as much, Walter Brown Gibson not only outlasts Time and Space, but he spectacularly lives on in present-day imaginations, as the vital and almost preternatural artist he was. Walter Brown Gibson is as much a super-heroic inspiration for American artists now as he was nearly forty years ago. Gibson, along with his <i>Shadow</i>, both have finally seen the light of day. History and the world at large have permanently taken note.</div><div><br /></div><div><i><b>About the Author: </b></i><b>Michael Mauro DeBonis is a poet and a historian from Long Island, New York. A graduate of Suffolk County Community College (A. A. in Liberal Studies) and SUNY at Stony Brook (B. A. in English Literature), Michael's work first appeared in <i>The Village Beacon Record </i>and <i>The Brookhaven Times Newspapers</i>. Michael's current work (poetry and prose) may be found in <i>The New York History Review</i> and elsewhere.</b><br /><br /> <p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"> Bibliography:<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 89pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -53pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]-->1)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><!--[endif]--><i>Ian Fleming</i>, The Editors, <i>The Encyclopedia Britannica, </i>copyright 2021, Britannica.com. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 89pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -53pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]-->2)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><!--[endif]-->Mai Ly Degnan, <i>Pulp Magazines and Their Influence on Entertainment Today</i>, The Journal<i> </i>of the Norman Rockwell Museum, January 2013, nrm.org.<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="font-size: medium; margin-left: 89pt;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 89pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -53pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]-->3)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><!--[endif]-->Dorothy Gardiner, <i>Sir Arthur Conan Doyle</i>, <i>The Encyclopedia Americana</i>, vol. 9, pages 322-323, copyright 1970, Americana Corporation, 575 Lexington Avenue, New York, New York, 10022, USA.<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 89pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -53pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]-->4)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><!--[endif]-->Robert W. Gibson, <i>Introduction to Walter B. Gibson and The Shadow</i>, pages ix-x, copyright 2003, McFarland & Company, Jefferson, North Carolina, USA and London, England.<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 89pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -53pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]-->5)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><!--[endif]-->Walter B. Gibson, <i>Harry Houdini</i>, <i>The Encyclopedia Americana</i>, vol. 14, page 455, copyright 1970, Americana Corporation, 575 Lexington Avenue, New York, New York, 10022, USA.<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 89pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -53pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]-->6)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><!--[endif]-->George Knowles, <i>A Wizard of Words, Walter B. Gibson</i>, Online Journal, copyright 2006, Controverscial.Com <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 89pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -53pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]-->7)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><!--[endif]-->Aleta Mayne, <i>Behind The Shadow</i>, Colgate Scene, Spring 2016, news.colgate.edu.<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 89pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -53pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]-->8)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><!--[endif]-->William V. Rauscher, <i>Walter B. Gibson-Wizard of Words</i>, Online Journal, copyright 2021, MysticLightPress.Com.<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 89pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -53pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]-->9)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><!--[endif]-->Thomas J. Shimeld, <i>Walter B. Gibson and The Shadow</i>, McFarland & Company, copyright 2003, Jefferson, North Carolina and London, England.<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 89pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -53pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]-->10)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><!--[endif]-->Anthony Tollin, <i>The Men Who Cast The Shadow</i>, page 127, <i>The Shadow Magazine</i>, vol. 41, copyright 2010, Sanctum Books, P. O. Box 761474, San Antonio, Texas, 78245-1474.<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="font-size: medium; margin-left: 89pt;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="font-size: medium; margin-left: 89pt;"><o:p> </o:p></p><br /><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"> <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><i> </i></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium;"> <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium;"> <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p> </o:p></p><style class="WebKit-mso-list-quirks-style">
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</style></div>DLJhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14674534926004739081noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3330136066649493860.post-18487621822022134442021-09-03T13:57:00.007-07:002021-09-05T08:39:40.069-07:00 Lorenzo L. D. Tanner<br /> <b>by <a href="mailto:slriverguy@aol.com">Richard White</a></b><p>Copyright ©2021 All rights reserved by the author.</p><div><br /></div><br />An African loving fanatic in Marathon, Cortland County, has sent a letter to the President, asking that he issue a “Compensation Proclamation,” giving to the negroes freed by the Emancipation Proclamation land in the South, all of which this lunatic says by right belongs to the freedmen. Tanner probably would like to be President, and this is a bid for the negro vote. <br /><br />This was the opening “Editorial Sentiment” in Binghamton’s racially virulent Democratic<i> Leader</i> on March 29, 1872, regarding a petition authored by a long-time abolitionist from central New York to President Grant provide confiscated acreage in the South to the former slaves freed in 1863 by President Lincoln. “Compensation” and similar proposals such as land redistribution and agrarian reform were not new ideas. In fact, in 1862, President Lincoln signed two Compensated Emancipation Acts ended slavery in Washington, DC, and allowed former slaves to petition for reimbursement for their value. In 1865, the well-known slogan, “40 acres and a mule,” was popularized but never gained traction in Congress, and certainly not with President Johnson, whose viewpoint favored property restoration instead of compensation. In his classic <i>The Struggle for Equality</i> (1964), James McPherson explained Johnson’s amnesty proclamation in 1865. Subsequent pardons restored property rights to most rebels who would take an oath of allegiance. Still, he also points out that “abolitionists continued to work ”(410) for racial justice as Reconstruction developed as they had in the pre-War period.<br /><br />Such a person was a little-known public-spirited resident who lived in the Marathon-Freetown-Galatia region of Cortland County, Lorenzo D. Tanner. L. D., as he was called, moved to this rural region of central New York from Oneida County in 1835 and practiced a variation of citizen advocacy. In a look back at his life, The Cortland <i>Democrat</i>, on March 16, 1934, stated that he “was an impressive figure [who] wrote letters to the newspapers on all public questions. In the slavery days, he was an uncompromising Abolitionist, and his opponents nicknamed him ‘Nigger’ Tanner.” For example, Cazenovia’s The <i>Liberty Press</i> on July 18, 1843, discussed L. D.’s participation at the village’s anti-slavery meeting and stated that “our excellent friend…L. D. Tanner of Freetown, moved the resolutions” condemning the inhumanity of enslavement.<br /><br />Even before the passage of the Fugitive Slave Act in 1850, Tanner’s activism spurred him to travel to a nearby village to rally against slavery, not because he was “lunatic,” but because of his prime belief in racial equality and freedom for African Americans. At the rally on September 2, 1850, at Freetown’s Baptist Church, Tanner attended and was asked to co-write the assemblage’s resolutions. <br /><br />According to Cortland’s <i>The Whig</i> on September 26, the rally’s first purpose was to validate “the inalienable right to enjoy life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness” as a paramount principle of America. <br /><br />The second was to support the imprisoned William L. Chaplin, an agent of the New York State Anti-Slavery Society, who was jailed for helping two slaves trying to escape bondage in Maryland. As the rally neared its closing, seven resolutions were formulated and presented, and three were specifically about Chaplin’s incarceration. One insisted “that in that as much as the friends of slavery claim the right to extend it into the territories now free, we in our turn demand that the U. S. Constitution shall be amended by striking out those clauses which are claimed as its compromises.” Tanner’s style as a proponent of impartial freedom was quiet and “uncompromising,” and it presented itself through the tumultuous pre-war and war years. <br /><br />His approach to Reconstruction issues remained dramatically solid and unaltered in his work for civil rights. In 1870, for example, L. D. challenged a prominent neighbor and future two-term Assemblyman, D. C. Squires, to debate the freedmen’s immediate future at the Union school house in Lapeer to the west of Marathon. On June 3, The Cortland <i>Democrat</i> captured the complexity of their first debate months earlier and its aftermath. While the paper did not estimate the length of the first face-off or the audience’s size, it did note that there was no formal decision regarding who won the debate and later published L. D.’s challenge to Squires to debate on the pages of this newspaper which Squires did not answer.<br /><br />Two years later, an issue concerning the future of the Freedmen prompted Tanner to write to President Grant but, despite it being a petition to the President of the United States, there was limited reportage on this letter which was published in The Marathon <i>Independent</i>, which reprinted on March 26 an article originally appearing in the Cortland <i>Democrat</i>. In it, Tanner asked Grant “to issue a compensation proclamation in behalf of the freedmen. He asked that the President shall give the negroes their ‘forty acres and a mule’—at least he wants them to have the land they used to till for their masters.” While a letter from one constituent might impact a President, in this case, Grant’s mind was already made up. In his book, Grant (2017), historian Ron Chernow succinctly states the President’s stance on compensation. “Grant opposed land redistribution, which had excited so much hope among freedmen….On the other hand, he urged the continuance to safeguard black rights (565).” Yet even if Tanner were aware of the President’s view, he would not have been deterred in writing his letter. <br /><br />In the mid-1800s, Lorenzo Tanner's efforts in support of freedom and justice has endured for more than empirical reasons. He was not a firebrand or a charismatic, but he stands tall in New York State history. The offensive nickname-- both then and now--"Nigger Tanner"-- provides a powerful picture of the resilient racism that Tanner challenged.<div><br /><div><br /></div><div><b style="font-family: arial, tahoma, helvetica, freesans, sans-serif; font-size: 15.399999618530273px;">About the author: Richard White's articles have appeared in <i>Civil War History</i>, <i>The Journal of Negro History</i>, and other publications.</b></div></div>DLJhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14674534926004739081noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3330136066649493860.post-48215350828411394752021-05-21T07:09:00.005-07:002021-12-11T07:01:40.049-08:00 New York’s 1810 Election<p><b style="font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15.399999618530273px;">By <a href="mailto:strumh@sage.edu" style="color: #888888; text-decoration: none;">Harvey Strum</a> of The Sage Colleges<a href="https://www.blogger.com/" style="color: #888888; text-decoration: none;"></a><span id="goog_825782942"></span><span id="goog_825782943"></span></b><br style="font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15.399999618530273px;" /><b style="font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15.399999618530273px;">Copyright ©2021 All rights reserved by the author</b></p><br /><br />New York’s 1810 elections showed the importance of foreign policy issues in local and state politics. The foreign policies of President James Madison dominated the interaction between the Federalist controlled Assembly and Republican Governor Daniel Tompkins. Federalists and Republicans debated foreign policy during the summer of 1809 and in the November Common Council elections in New York City. Madison’s foreign policy became the main issue used by Federalists and Republicans in the spring 1810 state and congressional elections. Republicans called the Federalists Tories, lackeys of the British, and claimed they sought to drag the county into war with France. Their opponents viewed continued Republican rule as a disaster that would lead to more embargoes and war with Great Britain. The 1810 elections in revealed the connections between foreign policy and local and state politics. Foreign policy played a crucial role in local and state politics from 1807-1815.<br /><br />David Erskine, British Minister to the United States, negotiated an understanding with the United States in 1809 offering to withdraw the 1807 Orders in Council and settle the Chesapeake/ Leonard Affair of 1807 creating a dramatic improvement in Anglo-American relations. President James Madison proclaimed an end to the embargo on trade with Great Britain. News of the Anglo-American accommodation pleased New York Federalists who hoped, as Robert Troup noted, that it would lead to a new treaty "whereby all future misunderstandings will be prevented, and a solid foundation laid for a lasting peace." Federalists welcomed the Erskine agreement because the "unhappy differences" between the two nations had "proved highly injurious to… trade." For landholders in western and northern New York, the Erskine agreement would spur settlement and Troup expected his agency would probably "take a more prosperous course.”<a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_edn1">[i]</a><br /><br />The agreement might also encourage the Republicans to take more decisive action against the French. Congressman Herman Knickerbacker expected the President to support non-intercourse against France. Federalists believed the Republicans were "throwing off the Gallic Yoke of French Influence." In fact, Republican John Nicholas recommended the President and Congress authorize the arming of merchantmen and if necessary, engage in an undeclared naval war with France. If the French refused to stop their violations of American neutral rights, Federalists favored declaring "war against them, and it must be war interminable and exterminating." In the wake of the Erskine accord Republicans and Federalists wanted the President to adopt bolder policies toward the French.<a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_edn2">[ii]<span><a name='more'></a></span></a><br /><br />Federalists praised President Madison. According to Gulian C. Verplanck the President had "begun well" and if he continued "a course of strict impartiality" toward the European belligerents the Federalists would support him. Ontario County Federalists toasted Madison, "President of the People, and not of a party." As long as Madison followed "George Washington principles" Federalists would endorse his foreign policies.<a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_edn3">[iii]</a><br /><br />Federalists and Republicans celebrated the Erskine agreement and the end of commercial restrictions on June 10th, but bitter partisanship marred the festivities and the Fourth of July celebrations. About four thousand Federalists heard John Lovett and Philip Van Vechten condemn the Republicans for the "crime" of Anglophobia at a meeting in Albany. Federalists took credit for the Anglo-American reconciliation. They also toasted the Spanish victories against Napoleon, continued to assail the embargo and praised the Canadians, "enjoying liberty under a mild government, may our friendship be as lasting as the waters of the St. Lawrence." Federalists identified themselves as the true party of the people. How long could deferential politics survive in a society where even the elitist Federalists considered middle class farmers "the lords of the soil" and warned, "if this republic – the world's last hope – should ever be subverted," it will be because Americans placed too much confidence in their rulers.<a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_edn4">[iv]</a><br /><br />Confrontations between Federalists and Republicans occurred at Fourth of July festivities in Canajoharie, Goshen, and Poughkeepsie. When Federalists and Republicans passed each other in separate processions in Ballston Spa it was "with such masks of jealousy, such sullen reserve." Republicans tried to use June 10th celebrations to blunt Federalist efforts "to transfer the triumph of our country to Great Britain and to credit the settlement from the government to themselves." Rensselaer Republican Seth Parsons described the opposition as "a faction envenomed with the deepest hostility to the Laws and Liberties of their country." The Federalists encouraged "civil discord and domestic insurrection" and tried to aid the British "a second time to colonize us by commercial restrictions."<a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_edn5">[v]</a><br /><br />Even though Republicans rejoiced on June 10th at the "happy termination of our differences with Great Britain," by the Fourth of July their Anglophobia resurfaced. "Again, has the haughty genius of British tyranny been humbled," Seth Parsons boasted, "again have the rights of our country been vindicated.“ Republicans stressed American exceptionalism during the Fourth of July. Contrasting the United States with Europe, John T. Irving described this country as a "tranquil mansion" in a world of warring despots. "The melancholy scenes of poverty" prevalent in Europe did not exist in the United States, an empire of "bountiful profusion." The United States did not have the burden of a titled nobility demanding deference based on "birth and not …merit." Men of superior merit or virtue won prestige and honor, but they were "still only considered as equals." Republicans saw the United States as a society based on the equality of man. Deferential politics had no place in a state or nation of free men.<a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_edn6">[vi]</a><br /><br />In the wake of the Federalist victory, Tammany created a special committee to investigate the decline in the Republican vote. The committee recommended the dissolution of factional Republican clubs, the cessation of attacks on fellow Republicans in the press and a unity meeting. Efforts of "Burrite and Lewisite, Madisonian and Clintonian CHIEFS" to end their differences at two private unity meetings in July and August 1809 met with limited success. A public meeting nearly turned into a brawl when Clintonians tried to get the meeting to adopt a resolution praising both Madison and George Clinton. The factional animosities and suspicions still proved too strong for New York City Republicans to join together.<a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_edn7">[vii]</a><br /><br />In late July news reached New York of the British repudiation of the Erskine agreement. Immediately, the Republican press assailed the British and Republican Party leaders and organized public demonstrations against the British. The "infamous conduct of England," wrote a Cazenovia Republican editor, "exposed the cloven foot of perfidy." Republicans meeting at City Hall Park charged the British with "deception and … breach of good faith." They pledged to follow the President if Madison decided to "employ our invincible means." In reply to resolutions of support from New York City and Washington County Republicans, the President called upon New Yorkers for a "firm and patriotic support of the measures devised."<a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_edn8">[viii]</a><br /><br />Unlike the Republicans, New York's Federalists believed the failure of the Erskine mission arose from an "unfortunate misunderstanding …and not from… perfidy and diplomatic deception" by the British. Robert Troup feared the British disavowal of Erskine would "place at a much greater distance" an Anglo-American accord. The failure of the Erskine agreement ended the honeymoon between the Federalists and President Madison. John Jay described Madison as a "Prince worse than Pharoah." When demonstrations against the arrival of the new British Minister Francis James Jackson erupted in Annapolis and Norfolk, Richard Harrison denounced them as "arrogant and absurd, but our lord, the mob, is not famous either for Wisdom or Moderation." While the President might not be "mad enough" to reject the Jackson mission, his "pretensions" might prove "sufficiently extravagant" to doom the renewed effort to reach an Anglo-American understanding.<a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_edn9">[ix]</a><br /><br />Angered by the pompous, insulting, and negative attitude of Jackson, the President demanded his recall in November. Jackson accurately reported that his Federalist friends in New York City found nothing wrong with his conduct. Congressman Barent Gardenier considered the dismissal of Jackson "a proceeding worthy only of Barbarians.” Albany Federalists “all" thought “our Government is decidedly wrong" and even Rufus King believed the President intended the dismissal of Jackson as “a satisfactory offering to the French Emperor." Federalists feared Jackson's recall would lead to war. "The boys here are a little frightened," Peter De Witt wrote from New York City, "they fully believe in a rupture with England." Federalists questioned what the United States would gain from war. "What if we conquer Canada," asked editor Zachariah Lewis. "Have we not territory enough… are we still greedy for more?”<a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_edn10">[x]</a><br /><br />After the abrupt termination of Jackson's ministry, he remained in United States circulating among the Federalist social elite. New York's Federalists swamped him with attention. They invited him to every ball, dinner or wedding including the wedding of Rufus King's eldest son. While Republicans attacked Jackson as an agent of Satan, Federalists treated him as an honored guest. Upstate, Federalists endorsed the friendly behavior of the city's Federalists toward Jackson. "If we were in New York," Robert Troup wrote, "we should follow your example."<a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_edn11">[xi]</a><br /><br />Oliver Wolcott, Jr. led a faction of the Federalists who disagreed with Federalist defense of Jackson. He believed Jackson had "not come to settle with us but to insult and humiliate the country." Federalists ought to stand behind the President. For over a year Wolcott and his friends wanted the Federalist Party to adopt a more nationalistic position on Anglo-American relations and expel the Tories. "Some of our friends," Robert Troup reported, wanted the party to assume "Americanism." However, Troup felt the Federalists bore a responsibility to criticize “the perfidious and detestable policy of our Rulers." They had a duty to the nation, "nay, to God, himself… to arrest the progress of our nation to swift destruction." In good conscience the Federalists could not "be Americans" if this meant supporting the "dishonorable, disgraceful, and ruinous" policies of the Republicans. From this kind of Americanism, "may God… deliver me.” Federalists rejected the advice of Wolcott and other nationalists within the Federalist Party because they believed the stakes were too high – the fate of the nation – to endorse Administration policies. Federalists perceived Republican policies as a threat to "our constitution and our liberties." As long as the Republicans followed policies which the Federalists perceived would lead to an Anglo-American war and cooperation with Bonaparte, Federalists could not support Republican foreign policy.<a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_edn12">[xii]</a><br /><br />Republicans considered Jackson's behavior as further evidence of "British insolence and perfidy." Angered by Federalist support for Jackson, Republicans described Federalists as British agents and "true son/s/ of John Bull." Jackson's conduct created "much warmth" among Congressional Republicans. According to Ebenezer Sage, the Congressman for the three Long Island counties, Jackson's actions had fostered a "strong War party” in Congress.<a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_edn13">[xiii]</a><br /><br />In late November 1809 New York City voters went to the polls to elect the Common Council. This election demonstrates the relationship between local, state, and national politics and foreign policy. Federalists and Republicans ran their campaigns not on local issues but on foreign policy. 11 Federalists will have the support," predicted editor Zachariah Lewis, "of all who deprecate a useless embargo and an unnecessary war" and all who oppose "favoritism and prejudice toward foreign nations.” Republicans raised the cry of Tories and British agents to hurl against the opposition. The two parties quarreled over the Revolutionary legacy. Ninth Ward Federalists reminded voters "they remembered well the plains of Lexington and the bloody field of Monmouth, where Federalists, led our… patriots" to victory.” <a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_edn14">[xiv]</a><br /><br />During the summer, Republicans tried to heal their split but failed. They ran two slates in the Common Council elections. Tammany identified its slate as Madisonian because of its support for Madison in the 1808 Presidential election while the Clintonians ran a separate ticket. Federalists obtained 3,928 (53%) votes to 3,454 (47%) for the Republicans citywide. Due to the Clintonians and Madisonians (Tammany) putting up competing slates in the Sixth and Seventh wards, the Federalists carried those two strongly Republican wards. Federalists interpreted their winning fifteen of the twenty council seats as proof the people would not elect men "who are the… advocates of embargoes, non-intercourse, and war.”<a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_edn15">[xv]</a><br /><br />Meanwhile, Congress debated what policy to adopt in the wake of the repudiation of the Erskine accord and the recall of Jackson. New Yorkers complained of the "perpetual tornado of wind and words" having taken "the place of decision" in Congress. Congressman Ebenezer Sage lamented if only Congress had "honest men, not speculators." Congress moved to pass Macon I s Bill #2, which removed all restrictions on commerce but provided for the imposition of non-intercourse on either France or England if the other agreed to respect American neutral rights. Several New York Republicans including Congressmen Jonathan Fisk (Orange County), Gurdon Mumford, Sage, and Senator Obidiah German opposed the bill because they believed it contained not even "a pretense of resistance." However, the Republican majority passed the bill. News of the new law gave "a new life to the operations of our merchants" in New York.<a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_edn16">[xvi]</a><br /><br />Back in New York the Federalists gained control of the Council of Appointment and the state's patronage when a Republican council member, Robert Williams, defected to the Federalists. While several prominent Federalists including Gouverneur Morris, and Abraham Van Vechten objected to deals with "Changelings" the majority of state's Federalist leadership chose patronage over principle and accepted the deal with Williams. In opposition, Federalists denounced the Republican practice of only appointing loyal party members to office. However, once in control of the Council of Appointment Federalists ejected every Republican from public office and replaced them with job hungry Federalists. By 1810 the spoils system had become an established political practice which even the Federalists did not change. New York politicians practiced the spoils system long before New Yorker William L. Marcy coined his famous phrase.<a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_edn17">[xvii]</a><br /><br />Just as the Republicans divided over the spoils Federalists scrambled for lucrative offices. Filling the lucrative posts of Mayor and Recorder of New York City created the most conflict. When party leaders considered appointing Jacob Radcliff as Mayor, Gouverneur Morris cautioned against the appointment because Radcliff belonged to the nationalist faction along with Wolcott who supported Madison's ouster of Jackson. To Morris their support of the President was "not only reprehensible but impeachable conduct." Recommending having "nothing to do with such federalists," Morris argued "their Judgement is not to be relied on by us." Albany Federalists decided upon Radcliff. Disappointed friends of Robert Troup, Richard Varick and Nathaniel Pendleton nearly split the party in the city. The appointment of a Recorder posed similar problems as friends of Thomas Morris, Robert Benson, and Josiah Ogden Hoffman fought for the post.<a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_edn18">[xviii]</a><br /><br />This scramble for offices alarmed several Federalist leaders. Abraham Van Vechten, an Albany Assemblyman appointed Attorney-General, feared some Federalists in the Assembly cared more about patronage than about the "interests of the party." They threatened to split the party to pursue their own selfish interests. This "mortifying and disgusting" conduct alarmed many Federalists who labored "for the progress of federalism from patriotic motives." The conflict over jobs so disgusted Troup he refused to have anything more to do with the appointments battle. Congressman James Emott (Dutchess) warned if this continued "I shall despair of the ascendancy of correct principles." By competing for public offices, Federalists turned the fight with Republicans into a "war about names not about principles." While Republicans considered patronage an established part of the democratic electoral process, Federalists could not resolve the moral dilemma patronage posed for a party based on "correct principles."<a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_edn19">[xix]</a><br /><br />By driving "everything down before them" the Federalists forced the warring Republicans to unite for the 1810 election. Just prior to the wholesale removal of Republicans, Tammany’s organizing chairman, Mathew L. Davis, anticipated Clintonian opposition to a Tammany Assembly slate and swore "an eternal war against every mother son of them." A group of Lewisite Assemblymen and State Senators met in Albany to determine strategy during the campaign. Caught between the Clintonians and the Federalists, the Lewisites considered them selves a "poor set of true Republicans between Hawk and Buzzard." The removal of the Republicans including Mayor De Witt Clinton by the Federalist Council of Appointment produced temporary unity in Republican ranks. Clintonian Republicans backed the Tammany slate and upstate Clintonians and Lewisites arranged a deal. Clintonians backed Morgan Lewis for State Senator while Lewisites endorsed Tompkins' reelection. Republicans waged the 1810 campaign unified for the first time since 1801.<a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_edn20">[xx]</a><br /><br />The 1810 campaign began with a direct confrontation between the Federalist Assembly and Governor Tompkins. After Governor Tompkins gave a vigorous defense of the Administration's foreign policy the Assembly reacted by adopting an anti-Administration reply. During the debate on the floor of the Assembly, Republicans Dr. Samuel L. Mitchell, Roger Skinner of Washington County, Daniel L. Van Antwerp of Saratoga, and Oliver C. Comstock of Seneca County defended the foreign policy of President Madison and called upon the Assembly to vote for a substitute reply introduced by Mitchell which approved of the Governor's speech and the conduct of the Administration.<a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_edn21">[xxi]</a><br /><br />During the election campaign, Republicans assailed former British Minister Francis Jackson for his "vile attempts… to evade the just…claims of our government." They attacked the Federalists for their "fulsome adulation" of Jackson which insulted "every citizen who possesses American feelings." Republicans also attacked their opponents for filibustering in Congress, defending British insults, misleading the public, sowing subversion, and joining with "Tories to elect… men notoriously hostile to the government." They claimed the Federalists sought to "involve us in a war with France." Republicans charged Federalist gubernatorial candidate, Jonas Platt, a State Senator from the Western District, wrote a pamphlet in 1800 "derogatory to freemen." Platt favored elected representatives following their conscience and not merely representing the opinion of the majority of their constituents. To the Republicans this appeared "language suited to the courts of St. James and St. Cloud, but little adapted to a nation of freemen." Republicans hoped to recapture the Assembly using the issues of Anglophobia and democracy.<a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_edn22">[xxii]</a><br /><br />In the Assembly Federalists Abraham Van Vechten, Daniel Cady (Montgomery), Thomas P. Grosvenor (Columbia) and Alexander Neeley (Dutchess) assailed the dismissal of Jackson, Republican sympathy for France and the danger of an Anglo-American war. The Federalist majority in the Assembly passed a resolution, in reply to Governor Tompkins' address, critical of Administration's foreign policy and opposing war with England, the only bulwark against Napoleon's ambition. During the campaign Federalists claimed the dismissal of Jackson merited "the decided disapprobation of the nation." In an electoral address to the voters of New York and Westchester, Gouverneur Morris charged the President planned to use Jackson's dismissal as a pretext for war. Federalists even portrayed the appointment of John Quincy Adams as Minister to Russia as part of a conspiracy to form a Franco-American alliance and start a war with the British.<a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_edn23">[xxiii]</a><br /><br />While Federalists publicly attacked Macon's Bill #1 as a continuation of the Republican policy of commercial warfare, they privately approved of Macon's Bill #2 because the law removed non-intercourse and consequently, improved the economic prospects for Federalist merchants and upstate landowners. During the campaign Federalists raised two state issues-Clintonian influence and Republican loans of common school funds to political associates and relatives including Edmund C. Genet. Federalists charged Tompkins with subservience "to a powerful and unprincipled family" – the Clintons. However, Republicans concentrated on foreign policy. George Tibbits portrayed the election as an opportunity for the voters to "decide… whether a course of measures which have already nearly ruined the country shall be persisted in and even matured to a State of war" or elect Platt and send a signal to Madison to halt the disastrous Republican foreign policies.<a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_edn24">[xxiv]</a><br /><br />When a mob "of the lowest order" burned an effigy of apostate Republican Robert Williams in Poughkeepsie, Federalists denounced the act because a mob could easily go "from burning a man in effigy to burning his home or cutting his throat." Federalists repeatedly expressed the fear Republican mob violence would lead to excesses similar to the French Revolution. They hoped to use the 1810 election as the means to "extirpate this degenerate species of French Jacobinism, not only from our councils, but… from the minds of our deluded fellow citizens." They also criticized Republican efforts to change the militia laws as leading to "a military conscription, similar to that of France.”<a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_edn25">[xxv]</a><br /><br />Trying to counteract the image of Tompkins as the "Farmer's Boy" and Platt as an aristocratic lawyer, Federalists described their candidate as a man of the people, "whose habits and manners are as plain and republican as those of his country neighbors." Platt was not "a city lawyer who rolls in splendor and wallows in luxury." Seeking to appear as the true party of the people, Federalists attacked the enlargement of the army as a threat to American liberties and the Republican attempts to restrict Congressional debates as unconstitutional and endangering free speech. Federalists censured the Republicans for withholding information on foreign affairs from the public. They demanded "frankness, publicity and no secrecy.” While the Federalists tried to appear as the party of the people, they drew a distinction between themselves and the Republicans. In a republic representative did not have to blindly follow public opinion. After all, "the principle of binding instructions is of French origin – the Jacobin clubs of Paris."<a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_edn26">[xxvi]</a><br /><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><b><i>Appealing to ethnic voters, Federalists sang,</i></b></div><div style="text-align: center;"><b><i><br /></i></b></div><div style="text-align: center;"><b><i>Come Dutch, and Yankee, Irish, Scot</i></b></div><div style="text-align: center;"><b><i><br /></i></b></div><div style="text-align: center;"><b><i>With intermixed relation.</i></b></div><div style="text-align: center;"><b><i><br /></i></b></div><div style="text-align: center;"><b><i>From whence we came, it matters not.</i></b></div><div style="text-align: center;"><b><i><br /></i></b></div><div style="text-align: center;"><b><i>We all make, now, one nation.</i></b></div><div><br /></div><div><br />Through the press of apostate Republican James Cheetham, Federalists competed for the votes of Irish, German, English, and Scottish immigrants. Republicans countered, "Republicans are the true… and liberal friends of CATHOLICS." While Federalists sought the immigrant vote, they did not totally abandon nativism. “The appointment of FOREIGNERS to offices of… trust, is degrading to… Americans and tends to promote the emigration of… seditious subjects of other nations." Federalists sought the votes of both immigrants and nativists.<a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_edn27">[xxvii]</a><br /><br />Black voters condemned the Republican Party for seeking to disenfranchise them and agreed to support the Federalists. Both political parties competed for the votes of Quakers, especially in Columbia County. Federalists Elisha Williams and Jacob Rutsen Van Rensselaer favored legislative exemption of Quakers from the $10 tax on individuals released from militia duty. Martin Van Buren tried to persuade a local Quaker leader to get his brethren to vote Republican. In western New York, the two parties competed for the votes of Methodists. Republican Methodists condemned Jonas Platt's alleged failure to show any evidence of a conversion experience. However, fellow Methodist Elias Vanderlip defended Platt's religious life particularly his conversion to Methodism. Federalists also appealed to mechanics, cartmen and laborers who comprised 4,000 of the city's voters. They especially tried to obtain the votes of ship-carpenters, blacksmiths, ropemakers and mariners.<a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_edn28">[xxviii]</a><br /><br />"Unexpected success has followed the standard of our opponents," noted a surprised Morris S. Miller. "It is not in our power to account for the result… never was there more unanimity among Federalists" nor greater exertions. Miller felt the Federalists did everything they could and still lost. Republican Governor Tompkins won reelection defeating Platt 54 percent to 46 percent. A total of 79,600 voters cast ballots in the gubernatorial election, an increase of 9 percent from the 1809 senatorial election and 20 percent above the 1807 gubernatorial contest. Republicans swept all the State Senate seats at stake and won two-thirds of the Assembly seats. They also carried twelve of the seventeen Congressional seats. "The republic is safe," declared Charles Holt, editor of the Clintonian Republican New York Columbian. The Republicans triumphed, he added, over internal “apostasy and corruption as well as British influence.” By electing Tompkins, New Yorkers demonstrated, Federalist editor Paraclete Potter lamented, "Their approbation of the whole system of embargo, non-intercourse and non-importation laws." New Yorkers elected, he added, "an abject tool of Clinton.”<a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_edn29">[xxix]</a><br /><br />Republicans benefited from higher voter turnout in 1810. They gained 1,664 votes (20%) in the Eastern District, 1,584 votes (20%) in the Middle District and 789 (15%) in the Southern District while the Federalists picked up 991 (11%), 1,007 (15%) and 372 (08%) respectively. In 1809 the Federalists elected two Senators from the Eastern District but in 1810 the Republicans succeeded in obtaining more votes in virtually every county in the district. Their sharp increases in Washington and Montgomery (17%) gave them the victory. In the Western District, the Federalists won three Senate seats in 1810. The Federalist vote dropped 1,596 (-10%) while the Republicans increased 2,138 (14%). In the strongly Republican county of Cayuga over 400 Republicans who voted Federalist in 1809 returned to the Republican Party. In Jefferson about 135 voters switched back to the Republicans. In Chenango and Otsego about 150 voters in each county who voted Federalist in 1809 did not go to the polls in 1810. With the removal of the embargo, 300 voters in those two counties who went to the polls in 1809 to express their discontent with the embargo did not vote. A sharp rise in turnout in Seneca, Schoharie, Ontario, Onondaga, and Herkimer reflected the ability of the Republican Party to mobilize voters and inability of the Federalists to stir the voters once the embargo ended.<br /><br />Republican Party unity did not guarantee Republican Party success. Surprisingly, the Federalists gained additional votes in Columbia and New York, the two counties where unity between Republican Party factions should have aided the party the most. In the Middle District, the Republicans ran Clintonian James W. Wilkin and former Governor Morgan Lewis for State Senator. Both Martin Van Buren, for the Clintonians, and Robert R. Livingston worked "very actively" for the Clintonian-Lewisite coalition slate, but they could not carry Columbia. Even the majority of the Chancellor's own freeholders voted Federalist. Down in New York City the Clintonian-Tammany deal should have produced a Republican majority in the gubernatorial and state senatorial races but the Federalists won.<a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_edn30">[xxx]</a><br /><br />As in previous elections, illegal voting took place during the gubernatorial election. Federalists claimed the Republicans in every district in the state created voters "from the dregs of the people, by Quit Claim deeds." A newly made voter would cast his ballot and then "assign his deed to another." Republicans even released criminals and made them voters. Clintonians and Lewisites cooperated in creating illegal voters. As a Federalist editor observed, "the Quids supported them." Federalist charges suggest the Republicans disregarded the election laws on a widespread scale in western New York, Albany, Washington, Orange, and New York counties. In New York City, the Republicans even resorted to multiple voting. Republicans countercharged Federalists evaded the election laws in New York City and Albany. "Many federalists who were not worth one cent," perjured themselves to vote. Martin Van Buren admitted the Federalists proved more skillful in creating voters than the Republicans in Columbia County. Federalists managed to create twice as many votes as Republicans in the county. As Alden Spooner, a Brooklyn Republican editor noted two years later:<br /><br /><b><i> By the big book of laws our rulers wrote,<br /><br /> No Man unassess’d, is permitted to vote;<br /><br /> Yet, said one to his neighbor, in these party days,<br /><br /> They will vote, tho unable one shilling to raise;<br /><br /> You mistake, said the other, in grog shops and stores<br /><br /> And Brooklyn Hotels, they have raised many scores! <a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_edn31">[xxxi]</a></i></b><br /><br />The evidence supports the charges of illegal voting. According to the 1807 electoral census, Columbia had 2,968 qualified voters. By 1814 this rose to 3,232. Yet, 3,742 cast ballots in 1810. Van Buren claimed 600 "made votes," one-third Republican, two-thirds Federalist, and the returns suggest at least 600 men voted illegally. In 1807 and 1814 about 3,000 men qualified to vote in New York City but in 1810 3,726 voted. Jefferson County had only 835 legitimate voters in 1807 and 1,039 in 1814 but 2,122 cast ballots in 1810. Returns for other towns and counties particularly in western and northern New York suggest considerable evasion of the election laws. Even though the Republicans refused to permit a de jure extension of the franchise they repeatedly manufactured voters. This enabled them to have tighter control over the voters than an extension of the franchise. While the Federalists condemned illegal voting and could not compete with the Republicans in making voters in western New York, they did resort to the same practice, apparently, in the upper Hudson Valley, New York City, and parts of northern New York.<a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_edn32">[xxxii]</a><br /><br />As a result of the Congressional elections, the Federalists dropped from eight to five seats. Lawyer Harmanus Bleecker easily won election in Albany defeating Republican John V. Veeder. The double district of Washington, Columbia and Rensselaer counties elected Federalists Asa Fitch and Robert Le Roy Livingston over Republicans Roger Skinner and James L. Hogeboom, former Assemblymen from Washington, and Rensselaer counties, respectively. James Emott won reelection in Dutchess County defeating former Congressman and Lewisite Republican Daniel C. Verplanck. Congressman Thomas R. Gold also won reelection defeating Republican Thomas Skinner in the Oneida-Madison district.<br /><br />The Federalists did not challenge the Republicans in the Long Island district. Consequently, Ebenezer Sage got reelected over token opposition from fellow Republican David Gardiner. In the double district of New York City, Richmond and Rockland, Republicans Samuel L. Mitchell and William Paulding, Jr. obtained "a majority of votes… in all the counties" defeating Federalists Peter A. Jay and John B. Calles. A leading Clintonian, Pierre Van Cortlandt, Jr. defeated Federalist John Bradner in the Westchester-Orange district. Federalist John M. Bowers lost to Republican Arunah Metcalf, a farmer, in Otsego and Delaware counties. Republican candidate Daniel Avery, a large landowner, easily won election over former Republican Congressman John Harris in the Cayuga Seneca-Steuben Tioga district. Reelected to represent Chenango, Cortland, Onondaga and Broome counties, Clergyman Uri Tracy defeated Federalist Nathaniel Waldron. Later serving as chairman of the House Foreign Affairs Committee, Republican Peter B. Porter began his Congressional career trouncing Federalist Ebenezer Foote Norton in the district composed of Ontario, Genesee, Niagara, and Allegany counties. Federalist James McCrea lost to Essex County Assemblyman Benjamin Pond in the Saratoga-Essex-Clinton-Franklin district. Former land agent for Nicholas Low and former judge of Oneida County Republican Silas Stow succeeded in the district consisting of Herkimer, Lewis, and St. Lawrence counties. Federalist Simeon Ford lost to Stow.<a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_edn33">[xxxiii]</a><br /><br />Federalists lost the Ulster-Sullivan-Greene district when their candidate Garrit Abeel unsuccessfully challenged Republican Thomas B. Cooke. Republicans also recaptured the Cayuga-Seneca Steuben-Tioga district and the Schoharie-Montgomery district. Elected as a Federalist Thomas Sammons defected to the Republicans in 1810 and defeated Federalist candidate Richard Van Horne. During the 1810 Congressional elections, Federalists won majorities in the upper Hudson Valley counties of Dutchess, Columbia, Rensselaer, Albany and Greene, the Southern Tier counties of Steuben and Broome, and the counties of Madison, Oneida, St. Lawrence, Franklin, and New York.<br /><br />As a result of the elections, the Federalists lost approximately twenty-seven seats in the Assembly. The Federalists lost Richmond, Kings, Westchester, Schenectady, Otsego, Schoharie, Montgomery, Herkimer, Jefferson, Clinton, Tioga, and Ontario. The following table indicates the major changes in voting behavior between 1809 and 1810 which resulted in the Federalist debacle:</div><div><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhPh44sQm5ZkdURimkSX35QFSFbBgmuWFNaLFA5pwaEYG_BPL4jW9hBklUZQ-NFB8mvyhXR9Zk7imIxsEgT5Bt0C6WqOrFwZBcDFCZzwRtNSW3DYOc0XTPC9GgVOePtwKUI3_d7MbazpxPU/s2157/strum1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="877" data-original-width="2157" height="234" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhPh44sQm5ZkdURimkSX35QFSFbBgmuWFNaLFA5pwaEYG_BPL4jW9hBklUZQ-NFB8mvyhXR9Zk7imIxsEgT5Bt0C6WqOrFwZBcDFCZzwRtNSW3DYOc0XTPC9GgVOePtwKUI3_d7MbazpxPU/w576-h234/strum1.jpg" width="576" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><br /><br />In the counties the Federalists lost the Republicans increased their vote totals by 10-25 percent while the Federalists reported losses or virtually the same returns of 1809. The Republicans won Herkimer, Westchester, Schenectady, and Ontario because new voters went to the polls and voted almost unanimously for the Republicans. The gains made by Republicans in Otsego, Schoharie and Jefferson came primarily from the defection of voters from the Federalists. Voters who did not vote in 1809 but went to the polls in 1810 combined with voters who switched from the Federalists to the Republicans to give the latter a narrow majority in Montgomery. Republicans also made gains in Madison and Queens which remained Federalist in 1810 but with reduced majorities. Federalists retained 35 seats while the Republicans won 71. <br /><br />Only in New York City did the Federalists gain Assembly seats. They captured six of the eleven seats, thus giving the Federalists a total of 41 seats in the Assembly. This unexpected partial Federalist victory in New York City especially surprised the Republicans because of the cooperation of the Clintonians and Tammany during the election. Looking for a scapegoat, the Republicans blamed the eight hundred free black voters who "almost to a man voted for the federal ticket." Republicans charged the Federalists allowed their slaves to vote as free blacks. Actually, James Cheetham's apostasy and defection to the Federalists may have brought over part of the Irish American vote. Republicans described their opponents as an alliance of Federalists, Tories, Negroes and Cheethamites.<a href="applewebdata://24AA91C2-56B8-4240-BD74-D504C892911A#_edn1">[i]</a><br /><br />Displeased with the partial Federalist triumph, several hundred Republicans staggered out of Martling's Tavern and marched down Broadway. They attacked and beat up several Federalists they encountered on the streets and broke the windows in the homes of William Coleman and James Cheetham. They also broke the windows of Mechanics Hall, the Federalist meeting place and at the home of Johnston Patten, a prominent Federalist mechanic. Republicans blamed the incidents on the Federalists and charged fifty Federalists "well drenched with brandy" stoned the home of merchant Stephen Jumel. Republicans also condemned the Federalists for allegedly parading outside the home of Governor Tompkins in Albany shouting their support for Jonas Platt. Angered at the Republican violence, Federalists used the incident to demonstrate the difference between democracy, espoused by the Republicans, and republicanism, which the Federalists favored. "The tendency of the former is to anarchy," argued editor William Coleman, “while that of the latter is to produce order, to cultivate rational liberty." Federalists portrayed election rioting as a harbinger of more serious Republican violence. "We must be prepared to see the horrid scenes of Revolutionary France," they warned, "enacted in our streets." Riots and effigy burnings led Federalists to nightmarish visions of American Robespierres roaming the streets of New York. While many New York Republicans accepted minor election rioting as part of the democratic process Federalists feared the Republicans would imitate the excesses of the French Revolution and portrayed each incident of Republican violence as the start of an American version of the Reign of Terror.<a href="applewebdata://24AA91C2-56B8-4240-BD74-D504C892911A#_edn2">[ii]</a><br /><br />With the removal of the embargo and the Jackson Affair, the Republicans entered the 1810 election campaign without the handicap of an unpopular measure and with the advantage that the Jackson incident permitted them to wrap themselves in the American flag. The Federalist successes in 1808 and 1809 depended upon Republican blunders. In 1810 the Federalists needed an issue. They tried to use the hostility produced by commercial restrictions and the failure of Anglo-American negotiations to keep their party in control of the Assembly and to provide the means to recapture the state house for the first time since 1801.<br /><br />By the time of the 1810 elections Congress and President Madison had abandoned commercial restrictions which had antagonized the voters of New York. The efforts of the Federalists to pin the blame for the failure of Anglo-American negotiations upon the President failed. Attacking England proved more effective than censuring President Madison and Congress. Voters in the upstate counties severely hurt by the embargo--Schenectady, Montgomery, Clinton, Herkimer, Ontario, Jefferson, Otsego and Schoharie and the downstate counties of Kings and Westchester returned to the Republican column.</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgYHFsI8RaosnV7y7yavaaIT1ZVCFw9F9SrXJB-R4r-IfEkZ5IRtdt4eKXKrsXjj-xxKpS1TWK-VzrtU9ocQ2LqWpgaUL2-jWi6ZMCrG3g5zkG8rXdmMSDmgQmL8xEjuedQlmE_T06hjYTl/s2048/strum2.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1057" data-original-width="2048" height="291" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgYHFsI8RaosnV7y7yavaaIT1ZVCFw9F9SrXJB-R4r-IfEkZ5IRtdt4eKXKrsXjj-xxKpS1TWK-VzrtU9ocQ2LqWpgaUL2-jWi6ZMCrG3g5zkG8rXdmMSDmgQmL8xEjuedQlmE_T06hjYTl/w563-h291/strum2.png" width="563" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><br /><br />Republicans who abstained from voting in 1809 because of their opposition to the embargo and new voters who went to the polls in 1810 generally voted Republican. Also, in several counties large numbers of voters who voted Federalist in 1809 either did not vote in 1810 or switched to the Republicans. The Republicans won the gubernatorial election, swept the State Senate seats, elected 71 of 112 Assemblymen and won control of twelve of the seventeen Congressional seats. The Federalists were reduced to their core area--the upper Hudson Valley, a scattering of towns in the Mohawk Valley, the Southern Tier counties of Broome and Steuben and parts of Allegany, Madison-Oneida counties, St. Lawrence-Franklin counties, western Ontario, central Westchester, and the lower three wards of New York City. However, the Federalists still remained stronger in 1810 than before the embargo in 1807. In 1807 they controlled only nineteen Assembly seats but in 1810 they retained forty-one. The resurgence of Federalism in 1809 proved the only force able to unite the feuding Republicans even temporarily. Republicans stood more united in 1810 than at any time from 1801-1820. Their loss of the Assembly in 1809 and of control of the Council of Appointment and with it the control of the state's patronage, provided the catalyst for the temporary alliance of Republican factions in 1810 spring elections.<br /><br />The returns indicated a record turnout of voters for the gubernatorial race. Even with the thousands of illegal voters created by the Republicans and Federalists, the turnout probably stood in the mid ninety percentile. According to the 1807 electoral census 121,000 men could vote and assuming this rose to about 135,000 by 1810 (in 1814 about 152,000 could vote) than about 80-82 percent of the electorate cast ballots for Assembly and Congress, a significant rise from the 67 percent of 1808. The difference in turnout between the Congressional-Assembly and gubernatorial voters suggests about 55 percent of the electorate who could only vote for Congress and the Assembly voted. During the first party system in New York lower income voters, those who could only qualify for the Assembly-Congressional elections, voted in considerably smaller percentages than the middle- and upper-income gubernatorial voters. As a whole the 1810 elections further suggest the likelihood of high voter turnout and the probability that during the latter stages of the first party system, this tended to favor the Republican Party. Enlarging the electorate by “illegal” means became part of the democratic revolution in New York in the early national period suggesting the truth of what historian David Fischer called the American age of democratic revolution.</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><b style="font-size: 14.666666984558105px; text-align: justify;">About the author: Harvey Strum is a history and political science professor at Russell Sage College in Troy and Albany. His most recent publications include: <i>America’s Mission of Mercy to Ireland, 1880, </i>New York History, 2018; <i>Schenectady’s Jews, Zionism,</i> New York History Review, 2019, 2020.</b><br /> <p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><div style="text-align: start;"><hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" /><div id="edn1"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://24AA91C2-56B8-4240-BD74-D504C892911A#_ednref1" name="_edn1" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[i]</span></span></span></a> David Gardiner to John L. Gardiner, May 1, 1810, MWC, MnU; New York <i>Columbian</i>, May 10, 19, 1810; New York <i>Public Advertiser</i>, April 26, 1810.<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn2"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://24AA91C2-56B8-4240-BD74-D504C892911A#_ednref2" name="_edn2" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[ii]</span></span></span></a> New York <i>Evening Post</i>, April 28, 1810; New York <i>Commercial Advertiser</i>, April 28, 1810; Poughkeepsie <i>Journal,</i> May 2, 1810. Canandaigua <i>Ontario Repository</i>, May 15, 1810; New York <i>Public Advertiser</i>, April 30, 1810; New York <i>Columbian</i>, April 30-May 9, 1810.<o:p></o:p></p></div></div></div><div><a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_ednref1" name="_edn1" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[i]</span></span></span></a><span face="Calibri, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt;"> Robert Troup to Sir John Johnstone, May 2, July 19, 1809, Pulteney Estate Letter book, Cornell University. Other accounts of the 1810 election: Dixon Ryan Fox, </span><i style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The Decline of Aristocracy in New York </i><span face="Calibri, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt;">(New York, 1919); Jabez Hammond, </span><i style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The</i><span face="Calibri, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><i style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">History</i><span face="Calibri, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt;"> of </span><i style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Political Parties </i><span face="Calibri, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt;">in the State of New York,( 2 vols. .Albany, 1842); Alexander Flick, ed. </span><i style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">History of the State of New York , (</i><span face="Calibri, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt;">10 vols. New York, 1933-37); Ray Irwin, </span><i style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Daniel D. Tompkins </i><span face="Calibri, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt;">(Kingsport, 1968); Jerome Mushkat, </span><i style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Tammany: Evolution of a Political Machine, 1789-1865 </i><span face="Calibri, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt;">(Syracuse, 1971); Harvey Strum, “New York and the War of 1812,” (Ph.D. diss., Syracuse University, 1978); John Brooke, </span><i style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Columbia Rising </i><span face="Calibri, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt;">(Chapel Hill, 2010. See chapter seven. Gustavus Myers, </span><i style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">History of Tammany Hall </i><span face="Calibri, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt;">(1917, reprint, New York, 1968); Daniel Cole, </span><i style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Martin Van Buren, and the American Political System </i><span face="Calibri, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt;">(Princeton, N.J, 1984); John Niven, </span><i style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Martin Van Buren, and the Romantic Age of American Politics </i><span face="Calibri, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt;">(New York, 1983). For background on Republican divisions, Craig Hanyan, </span><i style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">De Witt Clinton: Years of Molding, 1769-1807 </i><span face="Calibri, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt;">(New York, 1988). Steven Siry, </span><i style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">De Witt Clinton and the American Political Economy, Sectionalism, Politics, and Republican Ideology,1787-1828 (</i><span face="Calibri, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt;">New York, 1990); Evan Cornog,</span><i style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> The Birth of Empire: De Witt Clinton and the American Experience, 1769-1828 </i><span face="Calibri, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt;">(New York, 1998); Craig Hanyan and Mary Hanyan, </span><i style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">De Witt Clinton, and the Rise of the People’s Men </i><span face="Calibri, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt;">(New York, 1996). There appears to be no biography of the Federalist gubernatorial candidate in 1810, Jonas Platt. The excellent new study, Richard Barbuto, </span><i style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">New York’s War of 1812:Politics, Society, and Combat </i><span face="Calibri, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt;">(Norman, Oklahoma, 2021) briefly mentions the military appointments in 1810., 18.</span><br /><div><div id="edn1"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn2"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_ednref2" name="_edn2" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[ii]</span></span></span></a> Charles Dudley to Thomas Dudley, June 10, 1809, Box 31, Herman Knickerbacker to George Tibbits, June 10, 1809, Box 13, George Tibbits Papers, New York State Library (NYSL); Daniel Mills and James Scriven, Jr. to Jacob Houghton, July 4, 1809, Trojan Whig Society records, NYSL; John Nicholas to Wilson C. Nicholas, May 11, 1809, Wilson C. Nicholas Papers, Library of Congress( LC); Canandaigua <i>Ontario Repository</i>, July 11, 1809; Robert Watts to John Watts, July 4, 1809, Watts Papers, Columbia University; John Jay to Richard Peters, July 24, 1809, John Jay Papers, Columbia University; Albany <i>Balance</i>, May 19, 1809; Herman Knickerbacker to Bethel Mather, June 10, 1809, Briggs-Mather Family Papers, New-York Historical Society ( N-YHS).<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn3"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_ednref3" name="_edn3" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[iii]</span></span></span></a> Canandaigua <i>Ontario Repository</i>, July 11, 1809; Gulian C. Verplanck, Oration before the Washington Benevolent Society, July 4, 1809 (New York, 1809); Albany <i>Balance</i>, May 19, 1809.<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn4"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_ednref4" name="_edn4" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[iv]</span></span></span></a> Albany <i>Balance</i>, June-July 1809; Canandaigua <i>Ontario Repository</i>, June-July 1809; Cooperstown <i>Federalist</i>, June-July 1809; Ballston Spa <i>Independent American</i>, June-July 1809; New York <i>Commercial Advertiser</i>, June-July 1809; New York <i>Evening Post</i>, June-July 1809; New York <i>Herald</i>, June-July 1809; New York <i>American Spectator</i>, June-July 1809; Goshen <i>Orange County Patriot</i>, June-July, 1809; Salem <i>Washington Republican</i>, August 1809; Poughkeepsie <i>Journal</i>, June-July, 1809; Henry Schuyler to Ebenezer Foote, May 27, 1809, Foote Papers, Library of Congress ( LC).<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn5"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_ednref5" name="_edn5" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[v]</span></span></span></a> Poughkeepsie <i>Political</i> <i>Barometer</i>, June-July 1809; New York <i>Aurora</i>, May 1809; New York <i>American Citizen</i>, June-July 1809; New York <i>Public Advertiser</i>, June-July 1809; Cooperstown <i>Otsego Herald</i>, June-July 1809; Cazenovia <i>Pilot</i>, June-July 1809; Seth Parsons, "Oration, July 4, 1809," Hoosick Misc. Mss., N-YHS; John T. Irving, Oration Delivered Before the Tammany Society, July 4, 1809 (New York, 1809); Tammany Society Toasts, Box 25, Tammania, Kilroe Collection, Columbia University.<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn6"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_ednref6" name="_edn6" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[vi]</span></span></span></a> Ibid.<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn7"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_ednref7" name="_edn7" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[vii]</span></span></span></a> New York <i>Public Advertiser</i>, July-August 1809; New York <i>American Citizen</i>, July-August 1809; Mushkat, <i>Tammany</i>, 38-40; John T. Irving to William P. Van Ness, August 18, 1809, William P. Van Ness Papers, N-YHS.<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn8"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_ednref8" name="_edn8" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[viii]</span></span></span></a> New York <i>Public</i> <i>Advertiser</i>, July-August 1809; New York American Citizen, July-August 1809; Cazenovia Pilot, July-August 1809; Cooperstown <i>Otsego Herald</i>, July-August 1809; Mushkat, <i>Tammany</i>, p. 39; Republican Party, New York County, Circular Letter from the General Committee of the Republican Party of the City and County of New York (New York, 1809); Washington County Republicans to James Madison, September 14, 1809, Jesse Billings to James Madison, September 22, 1809, James Madison to New York Republican Committee, September 24, 1809, James Madison to Washington County Republicans, October 9, 1809, Reel 11, Madison Papers, LC; William L. Marcy, <i>Oration</i> (Troy, 1809).<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn9"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_ednref9" name="_edn9" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[ix]</span></span></span></a> Richard Harison to Roswell Hopkins, July 31, 1809, Richard Harison to George Harison, August 19, 1809, Letter book, 1802-1814, Richard Harison Papers, N-YHS; George Newbold to Francis Baring, September 29, 1809, George Newbold Letter book, N-YHS; Albany <i>Balance</i>, August-September 1809; Utica <i>Patriot</i>, November 21, 1809; John Jay to William Wilberforce, November 8, 1809, John Jay Papers, Columbia University; New York <i>Evening Post</i>, August-November 1809; New York <i>Commercial Advertiser</i>, August-November 1809; Charles Dudley to Thomas Dudley, October 10, 1809, Box 31, Tibbits Papers, NYSL; Gouverneur Morris to J.B. Nicholls, November 10, 1809, Reel 3, Morris to Le Ray de Chaumont, November 26, 1809, Reel 5, Gouverneur Morris Papers, LC; Luther Bradish to Ichabod Brush, July 27, 1809, Luther Bradish Papers, N-YHS; Robert Troup to Sir John Johnstone, August 3, 1809, Pulteney Estate Letter book, Cornell; Rufus King to Christopher Gore, August 3, 1809, Christopher Gore to Rufus King, August 16, 1809, Rufus King Papers, N-YHS; Barent Gardenier to Peter Van Schaack, December 3, 22, 1809, Peter Van Schaack Papers, Columbia University.<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn10"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_ednref10" name="_edn10" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[x]</span></span></span></a> Ballston Spa <i>Independent American</i>, August-December 1809; Cooperstown <i>Federalist</i>, November-December 1809; Utica <i>Patriot</i>, November 21, 1809; New York <i>Washington Republican</i>, September-December 1809; Canandaigua <i>Ontario Repository</i>, December 1809; New York <i>Commercial Advertiser</i>, November-December 1809; New York <i>Evening Post</i>, November-December 1809; Annals, 11th Cong., 1-2nd Sess., 1809-1810, 723-724, 805-815, 829-840; Goshen <i>Orange County Patriot</i>, December 1809; Peter De Witt to Cornelius De Witt, November 17, 1809, De Witt Family Papers, NYSL; Richard Harison to Isaac Bostwick, October 14, 1809, Letter book, 1802-1814, Richard Harison Papers, N-YHS; Rufus King to Timothy Pickering, December 25, 1809, Robert Troup to Nathaniel Pendleton, January 23, 1810, King Papers, N-YHS; James Jackson to Earl of Bathurst, January 22, 1810, Precis of James Jackson, Vol. I,. 44, New York Public Library ( NYPL.).<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn11"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_ednref11" name="_edn11" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[xi]</span></span></span></a> Jonathan Goodhue to Benjamin Goodhue, January 24, February 17, 1810, Goodhue Papers, New York Society Library; Robert Troup to Nathaniel Pendleton, January 23, 1810, King Papers, N-YHS.<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn12"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_ednref12" name="_edn12" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[xii]</span></span></span></a> Oliver Wolcott, Jr. to Frederick Wolcott, December 7, 1809, Alice Wolcott Collection, Litchfield Historical Society; Robert Troup to Nathaniel Pendleton, January 23, 1810, King Papers, N-YHS.<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn13"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_ednref13" name="_edn13" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[xiii]</span></span></span></a> Salam <i>Washington Register</i>, November 23, 1809; New York <i>Public Advertiser</i>, November-December 1809; Poughkeepsie <i>Political Barometer</i>, November 1809; Hudson <i>Bee</i>, November-December 1809; Cooperstown <i>Otsego Herald</i>, November-December 1809; <i>Annals</i>, 11th Cong., 2nd Sess., 1809-1810, pp. 809-825; Samuel Mitchell to John Quincy Adams, Jan uary 7, 1810, Reel 409, Adams Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society ( MHS); Ebenezer Sage to John L. Gardiner, December 1, 1809, David Gardiner to John L. Gardiner, March 1, 1810, Malcolm Wiley Collection (MWC), University of Minnesota, ( MnU); Ebenezer Sage to Henry Dering, December 12- 15, 18-22, 25, 1809, Henry Dering Papers, University of Michigan (MiU)<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn14"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_ednref14" name="_edn14" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[xiv]</span></span></span></a> New York <i>Commercial Advertiser</i>, November 21-24, 1809; New York <i>American Citizen</i>, November 26-December 1, 1809; New York <i>Public Advertiser,</i> November 21-26, 1809; New York <i>Columbian</i>, November 21-26, 1809; New York <i>American Spectator</i>, November 21, 1809; New York <i>Washington Republican</i>, November 25, 1809; Goshen <i>Orange County Patriot</i>, December 5, 1809; Mushkat, <i>Tammany</i>, 39; George Newbold to n.n., November 24, 1809, BV Newbold, N-YHS.<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn15"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_ednref15" name="_edn15" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[xv]</span></span></span></a> Ibid.<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn16"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_ednref16" name="_edn16" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[xvi]</span></span></span></a> William Rhinelander to Mary Robert, January 18, 1810, Smith Robert Papers, N-YHS; David Gardiner to John Gardiner, January 4, March 1, 1810, Ebenezer Sage to John Gardiner, January 21, February 26, March 26, April 1810, MWC, MnU; Ebenezer Sage to Henry Dering, December 12-15, 18-22, 25-27, 29, 1809, January 1, 2, 7-13, 8, 15, 16-19, 18, 25, February 1-2, 21, 26-27, 29, March 2, 4-10, 15-17, 19-23, 24, 26, 29-30, 1810, Henry Dering Papers, MiU; <i>Annals</i>, 11th Cong., 1-2nd Sess., 1439-1440, 1446, 1454, 1489, 1494, 1654, 1916, 1931, 2051.<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn17"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_ednref17" name="_edn17" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[xvii]</span></span></span></a> Samuel Mitchell to Catherine Mitchell, February 3, 21, 1810, Samuel L. Mitchell Papers, MCNY; Mushkat, <i>Tammany</i>, p. 40; Hammond, <i>Political</i> <i>Parties</i>, I, p. 280; Gouverneur Morris to Abraham Van Vechten, January 6, 1810, Vol. 19, Reel 3, Gouverneur Morris Papers, LC; Abraham Van Vechten to Ebenezer Foote, January 13, 1810, Foote Papers, NYSL.<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn18"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_ednref18" name="_edn18" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[xviii]</span></span></span></a> Ibid.<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn19"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_ednref19" name="_edn19" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[xix]</span></span></span></a> James Emott to Peter Van Schaack, February 4, 1810, Peter Van Schaack Papers, Columbia University; Robert Troup to Rufus King, January 12, February 23, 1810, Robert Troup to Nathaniel Pendleton, January 23, 1810, William W. Van Ness to Robert Troup, February 8, 1810, King Papers, N-YHS; Gouverneur Morris to Abraham Van Vechten, January 24, 1810, Vol. 19, Reel 3, Gouverneur Morris Papers, LC .Charles King, ed., <i>Life</i> <i>and</i> <i>Correspondence</i> of <i>Rufus</i> <i>King</i> (6 vols. New York, 1894-1900), V: 183, 186; Fox, <i>Decline</i>, 111.<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn20"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_ednref20" name="_edn20" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[xx]</span></span></span></a> Mushkat, <i>Tammany</i>, 39-40; Mathew L. Davis to William P. Van Ness, January 2, 1810, Mathew L. Davis Papers, Misc. Mss., N-YHS; Jonathan Thompson to John L. Gardiner, April 20, 1810, MWC, MnU; Martin Van Buren to De Witt Clinton, April 9, 19, 1810, De Witt Clinton Papers, Columbia University; Henry Rutgers to Daniel Tompkin8, March 21, 1810, Derek Brinckerhoff to Daniel Tompkins, March 7, 1810, Box 6, Daniel Tompkins Papers, NYSL; Hammond, <i>Political</i> <i>Parties</i>, I, 286.<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn21"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_ednref21" name="_edn21" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[xxi]</span></span></span></a> Ibid., p. 283; Albany <i>Balance</i>, February-March 1810; Samuel L. Mitchell to Catherine Mitchell, February 13, 1810, Mitchell Papers, Museum of the City of New York (MCNY); Hugh Hastings, ed., <i>Public Papers of Daniel D. Tompkins, Governor of New York State, 1807-17 </i>,( 3 vols .Albany, 1898-1902), II: 238-240.<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn22"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_ednref22" name="_edn22" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[xxii]</span></span></span></a> Hudson <i>Bee</i>, January-April, 1810; Cooperstown <i>Otsego Herald</i>, January-April, 1810; Plattsburgh <i>American Monitor</i>, December 23, 1809; New York<i> Journal</i>, January-April, 1810; New York <i>Public Advertiser</i>, January-April, 1810; Poughkeepsie <i>Political Barometer</i>, January-April, 1810; Sag Harbor <i>Suffolk Gazette</i>, February 1810; Salem <i>Washington Register</i>, February 1810; New York <i>Columbian</i>, January-April, 1810; Troy <i>Farmer's Register</i>, January-April, 1810; Jedediah Peck, et al., <i>Address</i> of <i>the</i> <i>Republican</i> <i>Members</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i><i>Convention</i>… <i>To</i> <i>the</i> <i>People</i> of <i>the</i> <i>Western</i> <i>District</i> (Canandaigua, 1810); "Albany County Republicans," April 7, 1810, Broadside, NYSL; "Order of the New Mayor," April 25, 1810, Broadside, N-YHS; New York County Republican Committee, A <i>Circular</i> <i>Address</i> to <i>the</i> <i>Republican</i> <i>Electors</i>… (New York, 1810). Democratic Party, Suffolk County, An Address… To the Electors of. <i>Suffolk</i> (Sag Harbor, 1810); Republican Party, Albany, <i>Proceedings</i> of <i>the</i> <i>Republican</i> <i>Meeting</i>… (Albany, 1810); Republican Party, New York State, <i>Republican</i> <i>Nomination</i> <i>and</i> <i>Address</i> to <i>the</i> <i>Electors</i> (Albany, 1810); John Rodman to Mary Fenno, February 1810, Box 10, Gulian Verplanck Papers, N-YHS; Robert R. Livingston to James Madison, January 8, 1810, Reel 11, Madison Papers, LC; "Republican Party, New York," March 13, 1810, Broadside, MWC, MnU.<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><o:p> </o:p></p></div><div id="edn23"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_ednref23" name="_edn23" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[xxiii]</span></span></span></a> Albany <i>Balance</i>, January-April 1810; Albany <i>Gazette</i>, January- April, 1810; New York <i>Evening Post</i>, January-April, 1810; New York <i>Commercial Advertiser</i>, January-April, 1810; Poughkeepsie <i>Journal</i>, January-April, 1810; Goshen <i>Orange County Patriot</i>, January-April, 1810; Canandaigua <i>Ontario Repository</i>, January-April, 1810; Herkimer <i>American</i>, February-March, 1810; New York<i>American Spectator</i>, January April, 1810; Abraham Van Vechten to Ebenezer Foote, January 12, 1810, Foote Papers, NYSL; Gouverneur Morris, To the People of the United States, manuscript, Gouverneur Morris Papers, Columbia University; Gouverneur Morris, "Electoral Address," manuscript copy, Gouverneur Morris Papers, Columbia University; Gouverneur Morris to Timothy Pickering, January 6, 1810, January 24, 1810, Gouverneur Morris to William Meredith, January 27, 1810, Reel 3, Gouverneur Morris to David Parish, May 16, 1810, Reel 5, Gouverneur Morris Papers, LC; Elisha Williams to Peter Van Schaack, March 26, 1810, Peter Van Schaack Papers, Columbia University; Killian K. Van Rensselaer to Harmanus Bleecker, March 15, 1810, Van Rensselaer Papers, AI; New York Federalist Corresponding Committee, "More French Kindness," Broad side, N-YHS; Peter W. Yates, "Plato," Manuscript copy, Miscellaneous Manuscripts, N-YHS; John Jay to Judge Richard Peters, February 26, 1810, John Jay Papers, Columbia University; Samuel M. Hopkins to Samuel A. Law, April 14, 1810, Box 1, Samuel A. Law Papers, NYSL.<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn24"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_ednref24" name="_edn24" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[xxiv]</span></span></span></a> Ibid.; <i>Annals</i>, 11th Cong., 1st-2nd Sess., pp. 1235, 1439, 1449, 1460, 1636, 1669; Rufus King to Timothy Pickering, January 26, 1810, Rufus King to Christopher Gore, January 2, 1810, Rufus King to Jonathan Trumbull, January 24, 1810, King Papers, N-YHS; King, V, pp. 194-196; Robert Troup o Richard Williams, January 27, 1810, Robert Troup to Sir John Jwistone, March 16, 1810, Pulteney Estate Letter book, Cornell; James Emott to Peter Van Schaack, February 4, 1810, Elisha Williams to Peter Van Schaack, March 26, 1810, Peter Van Schaack Papers, Columbia University; John Jay to Judge Richard Peters, February 26, 1810, Jay Papers, Columbia University; Richard Harison to n.n., March 26, 1810, Richard Harison Papers, N-YHS; Gouverneur Morris to Timothy Pickering, January 6, 1810, Vol. 19, Reel 3, Gouverneur Morris Papers, LC; Gouverneur Morris to Timothy Pickering, January 24, 1810, Reel 29, Pickering Papers, MHS; Vincent Mathews to Abraham Van Vechten, April 7, 1810, Vol. 8, p. 75, X973, C72, Mss. .Collections, Columbia University; Jonathan Dayton to John Gardiner, February 21, 1810, MWC, MnU; Federal Young Men of Schaghticoke to Trojan Whig Society, February 9, 1810, Whig Society Papers, NYSL; Utica <i>Patriot</i>, January 30, 1810; Jonathan Goodhue to Benjamin Goodhue, February 17, 1810, Goodhue Pape NNS; Thomas R. Gold to Oliver Wolcott, Jr., December 24, 1809, Oliver Wolcott, Jr. Papers, Connecticut Historical Society( CtHi); Oliver Wolcott to Frederick Wolcott, April 20, 1810, Alice Wolcott Collection, LIHS; Killian K. Van Rensselaer to Harmanus Bleecker, March 15, 1810, Van Rensselaer Papers ,Albany Institute of History and Art ( AI).<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn25"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_ednref25" name="_edn25" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[xxv]</span></span></span></a> Poughkeepsie <i>Journal</i>, February 28, 1810; Canandaigua <i>Ontario Repository</i>, March 1, 1810; Albany<i> Balance</i>, February 6, 1810; <i>Annals</i>, 11th Cong., 2nd Sess., 1810, 1503, 1576.<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn26"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_ednref26" name="_edn26" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[xxvi]</span></span></span></a> Goshen <i>Orange County Patriot</i>, April 10, 1810; Utica <i>Patriot</i>, January 16-30, 1810; Canandaigua <i>Ontario Repository</i>, March 6, 1810; George Tibbits to Caleb Bentley, April 13, 1810, Box 25, Tibbits Family Papers, NYSL.<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn27"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_ednref27" name="_edn27" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[xxvii]</span></span></span></a> "Platt and Liberty," Broadside, NYPL; Fox, Decline, 115; James Cheetham, "Address to Republican Adopted Citizens," Broadside, N-YHS; New York American Citizen, April 2-3, 1810; New York Journal, April 14-24, 1810; Albany Balance, March 13, April 24, 1810; "To the Independent Electors of... Montgomery and Schoharie," Broadside, N-YHS; Albany <i>Gazette</i>, January-April 1810.<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn28"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_ednref28" name="_edn28" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[xxviii]</span></span></span></a> Ibid.; New York <i>Evening Post</i>, April 23, 1810; Martin Van Buren to De Witt Clinton, April 19, 1810, De Witt Clinton Papers, Columbia University; New York <i>Commercial Advertiser</i>, April 25, 1810; Mathew L. Davis to William Peter Van Ness, February 13, 1810, Mathew Davis Papers, Misc. Mss., N-YHS.<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn29"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_ednref29" name="_edn29" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[xxix]</span></span></span></a> William North to George W. Featherstonehaugh, April 16, 1810, Duane-Featherstonehaugh Collection, N-YHS; Elisha Williams to Peter Van Schaack, March 26, 1810, Peter Van Schaack Papers, Columbia; Jonathan Dayton to John Gardiner, February 21, 1810, Jonathan Thompson to John Gardiner, April 20, 1810, MWC, MnU; William W. Van Ness to George Tibbits, April 13, 1810, George Conant to George Tibbits, March 22, 1810, Morris Miller to George Tibbits, March 19, 1810, Tibbits Family Papers, NYSL; Theodore Sedgwick to Theodore Sedgwick, April 9, 1810, Sedgwick Papers, MHS; Martin Van Buren to De Witt Clinton, April 9-19, 1810, De Witt Clinton Papers, Columbia University; Peter A. Jay to Charles Caldwell, April 14, 1810, Morris Miller to Peter A. Jay, May 8, 1810, Jay Papers, Columbia University; Samuel L. Mitchell to John Quincy Adams, May 9, 1810, Reel 409, Adams Papers, MHS; Albany<i> Balance</i>, May-June 1810; New York <i>Columbian</i>, May 3-19, 1810; New York <i>Public Advertiser</i>, May 1-21, 1810; Poughkeepsie <i>Journal</i>, May 9, 1810; New York <i>Commercial Advertiser</i>, May 1810; New York <i>Evening Post</i>, May 1810; Cooperstown <i>Otsego Herald</i>, May 1810; Cooperstown <i>Federalist</i>, May 1810; Canandaigua <i>Ontario Repository</i>, May 1810; New York <i>Mercantile Advertiser</i>, May 3, 1810; Goshen <i>Orange County Patriot</i>, May-June 1810; New York <i>American Citizen</i>, May-June 1810; Consortium for Political Research, Ann Arbor, Michigan.<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn30"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_ednref30" name="_edn30" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[xxx]</span></span></span></a> Martin Van Buren to De Witt Clinton, April 9, 1810, De Witt Clinton Papers, Columbia University. For further detail on the making of votes in Columbia County, Brooke, <i>Columbia Rising, </i>331-334. For a general analysis of making votes in New York, Harvey Strum, “Property Qualifications and Voting Behavior in New York, 1807-1816,” <i>Journal of the Early Republic, </i>1:4 (Winter 1981), 347-372.<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn31"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_ednref31" name="_edn31" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[xxxi]</span></span></span></a> Goshen <i>Orange County Patriot</i>, May 8, 1810; New York <i>Commercial Advertiser</i>, May 7, 1810; Albany <i>Balance</i>, May 2-20, 1810; New York <i>Public Advertiser</i>, May 8, 1810; Cooperstown <i>Otsego Herald</i>, May 19, 1810; Martin Van Buren to De Witt Clinton, April 28, 1810, De Witt Clinton Papers, Columbia University. Alden Spooner published “The Qualified Voter,” in Brooklyn <i>Long Island Star, </i>April 29, 1812.<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn32"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_ednref32" name="_edn32" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[xxxii]</span></span></span></a> Ibid.<o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn33"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><a href="applewebdata://9A697EBB-CC9D-4A95-AA24-A85682902F1A#_ednref33" name="_edn33" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14.266666412353516px;">[xxxiii]</span></span></span></a> Samuel L. Mitchell to John Quincy Adams, May 9, 1810, Reel 409, Adams Papers, MHS.<o:p></o:p></p></div></div></div>DLJhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14674534926004739081noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3330136066649493860.post-71770941803568802022021-02-16T08:02:00.012-08:002021-12-11T07:02:48.750-08:00 Letters of Chaplain Thomas K. Beecher - 141st New York Volunteer Infantry<b><span style="font-family: inherit;">By <a href="mailto:gfarr77@gmail.com" target="_blank">George R. Farr</a></span></b><div><span style="font-family: inherit;">Copyright © 2021 All rights reserved by the author.</span><div><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 16px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"> </span></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Rev. Thomas Beecher of Park Church and Congressman Alexander Diven came together with other prominent citizens of Chemung, Steuben, and Schuyler counties to raise an infantry regiment in the summer of 1862. Diven, along with Congressman Robert Van Valkenburg had been asked by President Lincoln and Secretary of State Seward to go home and raise such a regiment. As a result of this effort, the 107<sup>th</sup> NY Volunteer Infantry was raised and sent off to Washington in August with Diven as it's Lieutenant Colonel and Congressman Robert Van Valkenburg as its colonel.</span></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">The raising of the 107<sup>th</sup> had resulted in having an excess of 400 men that could not be included in that regiment. As a result, recruiting efforts continued, and a second regiment was raised, the 141<sup>st</sup>, and sent off towards Washington in late September with Beecher as its Chaplain.</span></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 15px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">The 107<sup>th</sup> participated in the battle of Antietam on September 17 and by the time the 141<sup>st</sup> arrived it was camped at Maryland Heights near Harper’s Ferry. The 141<sup>st</sup>, on the other hand, went into camp near Laurel, Maryland almost directly north of Washington and some distance from the camp of the 107<sup>th</sup>. Diven and Beecher would not see each other again until October when Beecher visited the camp of the 107<sup>th </sup>NY on Maryland Heights.</span></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">During the time Beecher was chaplain of the 141<sup>st</sup> he wrote letters to Charles Fairman for publication in the Elmira <i>Advertiser</i>. He wrote often and the letters were long and full of goings-on at the camp and Beecher’s personal feelings about many facets of camp life. The following are excerpts from those letters.</span></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit;">Visitors to his tent:</span></b></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: inherit;">My tent flap is my front door, and a very dirty door it is getting to be. At least fifty times a day when the door is closed and tied on the inside, a pair of sunburned hands part the opening and an honest face looks in.</span></i></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i>“Say helloa! Is this _____” </i>Beecher cuts the man off in mid-sentence. <i>“Shut that door”, says the Chaplain abruptly.</i></span></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: inherit;">“Did you knock?”</span></i></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: inherit;">“Didn’t know the rules sir. Sorry.”</span></i></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: inherit;">“All right call your name and wait for an answer, and never enter a tent until you have leave. Now come in.”</span></i></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: inherit;">Let any man go through this dialogue forty times a day and toward the end it begins to get funny.</span></i></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i></i><br /></span></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit;">And he went on to write.</span></b></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i>I should be mortified if you suppress my letters as unworthy to print. So then dear Fairman, if you ever get a stupid letter from me, too stupid too print, just insert an</i> <i>item; “We have received a long letter from Chaplain Beecher, which after reading, we conclude not to print.</i></span></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i></i><br /></span></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit;">Sunday in Camp:</span></b></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: inherit;">Shall I tell you of our Sunday? At first dawn you may easily hear that ‘tis Sunday for the camp is far quieter than usual, even though a soldier’s duty does not cease on any day. Indeed, a duty that begins with a solemn enlistment oath may well be counted a religion and have its place even upon the Lord’s day.</span></i></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i></i><br /></span></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: inherit;">At quarter of ten our adjutant forms parade while the Chaplain fixes a box pulpit out in a neighboring meadow. Then the battalion marches out and forms in front of the Chaplain—close compact and attentive. A short prayer of invocation—a hymn—a passage or two from the articles of war –a short lesson from scripture, with very few words of explanation or reminder—a prayer—and the song doxology complete a catholic regimental service.</span></i></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 15px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i></i><br /></span></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: inherit;">Our Sunday is over—the Drum Major has executed what he calls a “Flammer doodle” to call the Companies into line for roll-call. I hear a half-dozen Orderlies calling names and men answering. This finishes the daily duty. In a little time, the lights will be out and the camp dark, all but the officer’s tents.</span></i></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i>‘Tis past ten. The walls of our tents are black with flies, driven in by the cold. We may have our first frost by morning. We three tent-mates will have to snug up close together and keep warm as little pigs do, for we have no extra blankets. The whole camp is dark, save the light of the guard’s fire. Let me hasten to fold this sheet, put out my candle, shut my eyes and see the procession of my dear friends at home, and pray for them as they pass. God bless and keep you—keep you strong and single-minded</i>.</span></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit;">Swearing:</span></b></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: inherit;">Will you ask the clergy of Elmira to send me a recipe, a good moral tonic to cure swearing? There’s not a man in the regiment, but is willing to quit. I’ve read the commandment of God by Moses and the general order by Colonel Hathaway. One of our guards said to the colonel the other night after trying to stop swearing two days faithfully, “Just wait a bit colonel, give me some time to get some other words handy like and I’ll get done swearing at all, I will by God I will.” </span></i></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: inherit;">Now you have to understand that the humor in this story is that “I will by God I will” was considered swearing.</span></i></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i></i><br /></span></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit;">The Experiments:</span></b></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: inherit;">Being of an investigating nature, I’ve been looking experimentally into the subject of beds. Laying aside all traditions and prejudices, I began with first principles and have this night finished my round of experiments. Shall I report? Our soil here is a stiff light-yellow clay with a few gravel stones mixed in. There was a grass stubble on its surface.</span></i></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i></i><br /></span></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: inherit;">My first experiment was to lay a sheet of rubber down, then a blanket double, then the Chaplain and over him shawl and blanket. Sleep was good, but crickets peopled the grass and made bad noises and crept with prickly feet up and down the flesh. Grass not good, clean it out.</span></i></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i></i><br /></span></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: inherit;">Exp. 2. Drive three stakes in a line, set up a narrow board on edge, throw straw between the board and tent wall. Rubber sheet, blanket, chaplain, $c., as before. Result,--pleasant sensation at first reminding one of beds at home, but by and by the chaplain feels like meat boiling in too little water; raw and cold above the straw, moist and steaming in the straw. Throw out straw, clean up tent.</span></i></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: inherit;">Exp. 3. Bare, hard dry ground, blankets, chaplain, as in the last experiment. Slept well, except dreams of bridge building and strength of materials. One’s body touches at three points—head, thighs and heels. The trunk presents a fixed arch, the limbs a drawbridge. The strain is too great, the abutments crush and settle. Sleep is good, but not much rest. </span></i></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i></i><br /></span></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: inherit;">Exp. 4. Take axe and spade and make up a bed by artificially moulding the ground to the form of the Chaplain. Consider a well used hog wallow recently deserted, and how nicely it fits and welcomes the occupant’s return, and you have the archetype of the chaplain’s fourth bed. Result satisfactory, perfectly so, except that an old man campaigner says that the ground is unhealthy.</span></i></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i></i><br /></span></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: inherit;">Exp. 5. A Manilla hammock such as the natives sling up between two trees, and swing in the wind therein, held the chaplain for four nights. Slung between two tent poles the slack was excessive and the narrowness oppressive. One seems to shorten at both ends, and to be perpetually “dressing on the center.” When first tucked in, the reminding is of a mummy or a patient in pack at Watercure. Fault—one cannot turn over, nor get out of bed without help. Send back the hammock to the courteous Colonel.</span></i></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i></i><br /></span></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: inherit;">Exp. 6. A sacking bottom, well stretched, blankets, chaplain, &c. as in Exp.’s one, two and three. Result—very cold. Wind sucks under and blows up through. Mem.—Plan a good one if one can have five blankets and a shawl. Otherwise very bad in cold weather. Last night water froze a quarter inch at my tent door.</span></i></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i></i><br /></span></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: inherit;">Exp.7. The floor, the modelled ground a la hog hollow. To this I return from all my experimenting. The ground—the bare ground. Bring me the axe and the spade, let me make my bed. Lie down chaplain, make your mark. Friend Bailey scrape away where he touches, copy the curves,--ease off that lump—pick away that stone,--there that fits. The wallow is perfect. In five minutes more it will hold.</span></i></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i></i><br /></span></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit;">Visiting the 107<sup>th</sup> NY at Maryland Heights near Harper’s Ferry:</span></b></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i>There have been twenty-two or twenty-three deaths in the 107th and sick ones in far larger numbers. In my judgment the sickness has been due to over-marching and over-eating combined. Few men know the ravenous appetite that is bred by an outdoor life. And fewer still are ever wise enough to “stop hungry.” But experience is a very faithful teacher, and if God please, the Chaplain will discourse good counsel tomorrow morning, touching the same subject. </i>(Beecher was not aware of the fact that the ground on which the camp was situated was in fact almost solid rock and adequate latrines could not be established. This fact was responsible for the spread of disease in the camp and the resulting in the deaths of many soldiers.)</span></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 15px; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i></i><br /></span></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i>This afternoon in company with Dr. Beadle, the chaplain experimented with Col. Diven’s black horse a riding. I insist that equestrianism is a most</i> <i>unnatural and semi-barbarous accomplishment. —It is a shame to “put upon” a dumb beast such duty, and a greater shame to put men to such uses. —Call the “human frame divine” a log, the horse a wedge and mother earth a beetle or maul, and you have the essentials of horseback performances. —Had man been intended for such performances, he would have been created with an angle iron to withstand the strain. But war creates necessities, and necessities are their own law. Round these mountain roads men must ride who never road before. —And so, behold the chaplain wandering forth in search of the 64th regiment.</i></span></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i></i><br /></span></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: inherit;">We found it and many times the chaplain had to stop his horse and chat with unexpected friends. He found that to stop one’s horse is easier than to stop one’s self. The rider is apt to gone on after the horse is halted dead. If he goes on too recklessly, he is sure to go off. I overheard the chaplain asking Dr. Beadle how he looked and whether anybody was laughing.</span></i></p>
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<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: inherit;">I am now sitting on a stone wall amid the ruins of Harper’s Ferry. An hour or so I was by the graveside of Marcus Dawson of Co. D. There upon a point commanding a view of the Shenandoah valley for miles lies the graves of fourteen men of the 107<sup>th</sup> fallen by fever now at rest. I know nothing of Dawson save as a Christian I have assisted in burying him. But I saw in the hospital the body of a young man, three days dead, whom I myself enlisted. I have his name in one of my old books, as I looked upon his blanket shroud, I earnestly tested myself, was I right in telling him to enlist. I called to mind my speeches and my pleadings and my statements of July. Thank God I have not one word to repent of.</span></i></p>
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<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Reverend Beecher was also something of a poet as the following lines of free verse illustrate. While visiting the camp of the 107<sup>th</sup> NY that overlooked the village of Harper’s Ferry from Maryland Heights he made the following observations.</span></p>
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<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: inherit;">Scenes of waste everywhere, everybody on the move and nobody knowing anything or able to tell you anything. Through the elegant cast iron sash of the arched windows is seen the long drawn vacancies of the old armory buildings burned with fire. Deserted, doorless and sashless houses. Horses eating hay in parlors.<sup> </sup>Enterprising photographers set up their cameras in ownerless houses. Aetna insurance plates stand over doors long since burned. Sutlers peddle soft bread, tobacco and sausages from deserted dwelling houses where children played, hospitals fill with sick breaths rooms where beaux have visited and sweethearts charmed. Cavalry horses gnaw in the young orchards. And over all floats and clings the grime and dust where 10,000 feet each day do the pulverizing and constant winds the distribution. </span></i></p>
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<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit;">Spelling:</span></b></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i>There’s a need of schoolmasters in the 27<sup>th</sup> District still. Shall I give you specimens of what I daily read in the shape of literary murder of captain’s names? </i>Captain Tuttle figures as Tuthill, Tutil, Totel, Tuttell. <i>Your friend Captain Baldwin, and by the way camp agrees with him better than your office. He is plumping rapidly enough to suit a Fejee gourmand. Where was I, oh yes</i>! Captain Baldwin is written down on letter backs as Balden, Bawlding and Bolden. Captain Logie is transmuted into Loga, Logy and Logah. <i>And Captain Claugharty is the worst. A man with such a name ought to live bachelor and afflict none of the next generation with such a name to misspell. </i></span></p>
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<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit;">Chaplain’s Duties:</span></b></p>
<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i>The readers of your paper have had rest long enough. It is time that Chaplain’s drill should begin again. By the by speaking of Chaplain reminds me of Fred Burritt, your correspondent, and his private letter about chaplains. Abating something for</i> <i>the easy</i><span style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"><i> </i></span><i>style of the letter, I wish to say amen to the general sentiment, as to the uselessness of chaplains in military service. Of work properly belonging to a chaplain there is not enough in six regiments to employ one man. I should not work two hours, if I confined myself to my proper official duties.</i></span></p>
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<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: inherit;">Much more I might add, but I do not purpose an essay upon army religion. I intended at first merely to say that in my judgment the army would gain by dismissing all chaplains and trusting to the voluntary acts of officers and men. I would this day prefer to have my commission revoked and my stay with the regiment, and my support made to depend upon my military parish.</span></i></p>
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<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: inherit;">And yet even while enjoying the most advantageous social position in my regiment of any chaplain of whom I have yet heard of, I am clearly persuaded that as a chaplain I am nearly or quite useless. Were it not that there has been a world of other work, I should long since have relieved the regiment of my presence—and the treasury of my support.</span></i></p>
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<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">This letter went on and on in the same vein, and it was obvious that Beecher had become uncomfortable with his position as chaplain of the 141<sup>st</sup>.</span></p>
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<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">He had a falling out with Colonel Hathaway most likely over his brother’s James’ recent appointment as Lieutenant Colonel of the regiment His appointment was viewed as having been unduly influenced by the chaplain and had resulted in the current and popular Lieutenant Colonel William E. Bonham leaving the regiment. </span></p>
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<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">It was during this period that Beecher wrote to Hathaway’s superiors and accused him of trying to overthrow the government. This type of activity ultimately resulted in his resigning from the regiment on January 10, 1863. His brother James remained for a short while, but was rescued from his predicament by his sister who helped him obtain an honorable discharge from the army shortly hereafter. </span></p>
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<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">This article was taken from the letters published in the Elmira<i> Advertiser</i></span></p>
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<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><b>About the author: George R. Farr grew up in Horseheads, NY, and presently lives in the town of Elmira (West Elmira). He is a graduate (1957) of Upsala College and also studied at Rutgers U., Seton Hall U., Elmira College, and Corning Community College. He has lectured extensively on the American Civil War and local history.</b></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></p>
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<p style="font-family: Times; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px;"><br /></p></div>DLJhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14674534926004739081noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3330136066649493860.post-23876739225356664312021-01-01T11:59:00.522-08:002021-11-30T12:11:15.343-08:00Jews of Troy, 1850-1950<p><b>by <a href="mailto:strumh@sage.edu">Harvey Strum</a>, Sage Colleges<br />Copyright ©2021 All rights reserved by the author</b></p><br /><b>Creating a Community</b><br /><br />“Mechanic Benjamin Fivel, a member of Company B, 105th Infantry, who was severely wounded during the Hindenburg line drive, has received his honorable discharge and returned to his home in Troy.”(1) From World War I, this story is one of the forgotten accounts of Jewish immigrants living in small towns and midsize upstate New York cities, especially in the Hudson Valley. Looking at the experiences of ethnic and religious minorities who settled in upstate New York can provide us with a fuller understanding of the immigrant experience and the problems and opportunities available to ethnic and religious minorities populating in upstate communities. How did these immigrants identify with America, and how did they adapt and change to their new environment? How did immigrants, especially the Jews of Troy, express their desire to maintain or reject the values and experiences of Jews in Europe? To what degree did they create institutions that preserved their ethnic and religious identity as distinct from the Anglo-American Protestant majority, and to what degree did they shed their customs, spiritual practices, and identity to fit in as “real Americans?” Did Jewish immigrants and their American-born descendants feel obligated to help Jews abroad? To what degree did Troy's Jews identify with Zionism as either the Jewish people's nationalist movement or as a refuge from persecution for the Jews of Russia, Romania, Poland, and Germany?<br /><br />Ever since the first Jews arrived in New Amsterdam in 1654, Jews grappled with the same questions---how to maintain Jewish identity in an overwhelmingly Christian society and cling to separate ethnic, religious, cultural, and social values to navigate between their Jewish identity and Americanization. The repeated problems of relatives and co-religionists in Europe raised other questions---was the solution for the European hostility to Jews mass migration to America or the creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine? In looking at these questions, historians have focused on Jewish immigrants' experiences in New York City or in Chicago, Boston, and Philadelphia. Local Jewish historians partially filled the gap and researched the experiences of Jews in midsize cities in the Hudson Valley and upstate New York. (2)<span><a name='more'></a></span><br />Today most of the Jewish residents in upstate New York live in the immediate suburban counties of Westchester (129,000), Rockland (93,000), and Orange (34,000). In upstate New York, the Jewish population is 22,500 in Rochester, 18,500 in Buffalo, and nine thousand in Syracuse. Albany is the home of the largest Jewish community in the mid and upper Hudson Valley, 12,000. In the 19th Century, Jewish immigrants created a few scattered Jewish communities in the Hudson Valley from Yonkers to Glens Falls. Since the 1960s, only a few new Jewish congregations have been founded in the Hudson Valley, above the suburbs, most notably in Albany, New Paltz, Chatham, and Rhinebeck. Jews remain a small minority in most of the Hudson Valley and upstate New York. Jewish immigrants appeared as an exotic religious minority in the 19th Century. In 2019, few Jews live north of the New York City suburbs. <br /><br />The history of the Jews of Troy provides an understanding of establishing a Hudson Valley Jewish community. In small towns and medium-sized cities, Jews, as non-Christians, comprise a small religious and ethnic minority that always must negotiate their interactions with a larger gentile population, either ignore their existence or views them as an odd “other.”<br /><br />Unfortunately, not all Jewish communities established in the Hudson Valley still exist. At least four Jewish communities near Troy have vanished. In the 1870s, a few Jewish immigrants migrated to the prosperous agricultural market center of Hoosick Falls in northern Rensselaer County. By the early 1880s, they established a synagogue that Gentiles dubbed the “Hebrew synagogue.” Although small in numbers, Jews in Hoosick Falls actively participated in efforts to aid Jews abroad. In November 1919, for example, the Jewish residents organized a mass meeting. Non-Jews, including the Village President Danforth Geer, attended the meeting and supported the Jewish Relief Fund's fund-raising efforts to assist Jews in Europe and Palestine. An organized Jewish community lasted for fifty years until the early 1930s, The Great Depression led to the collapse of the economy, and Jews moved out of the town. A few Jews remained in Hoosick Falls, but they could no longer support a synagogue and hire a rabbi even on a part-time basis. In the 1930s, a few Jewish refugees from Germany settled in Hoosick Falls, but their descendants left the town, and in 2019 only one Jewish resident lives in Hoosick Falls. (3)<br /><br />Across the Hudson River from Troy, the first Jewish immigrants settled in “Spindle City,” the name for Cohoes, in northern Albany County, a thriving textile and industrial city, in the 1850s. <br /><br />As part of the larger migration of Jews to the United States, the Jewish population of Cohoes grew in the 1870s and increased into the early 20th Century. For decades the Orthodox Jewish residents crossed the river to attend services in the synagogues in Troy. By the 1890s, 250 Jews lived in Cohoes, 1% of the city’s population, but enough to establish their own Orthodox synagogue, Congregation Beth Jacob, on 25 August 1896. Like the Jews in Hoosick Falls, the Jews of Cohoes actively aided their co-religionists abroad. In October 1919, for example, the Jewish community collected $3,100 for the Jewish Relief Fund, and in September 1929 contributed $250 to a fund to aid victims of Arab pogroms in Palestine. A declining economy in Cohoes and a dwindling Orthodox Jewish population forced Beth Jacob's closure and the merger with Orthodox Beth Tephilah synagogue in Troy in January 1968.<br /><br />Changing business environments, the decline of Jewish owned businesses, fewer immigrants, smaller families, declining commitment to Orthodox Judaism, and second and third-generation Jews leaving for better prospects in larger urban areas led to the collapse and eventual extinction of Jewish life in small towns and cities across the United States. (4)<br /><br />Starting in the 1890s, several Jewish families settled as farmers in southern Rensselaer County. In 1905, the Jewish Agricultural Society enlisted Jewish immigrants on the Lower East Side of New York City to start new lives as farmers in rural southern Rensselaer County. Jews migrated to Schodack, East Schodack, Nassau, and East Nassau. In a report from the Jewish Agricultural in 1908, Society ranked Rensselaer County as having the second-largest concentration of Jewish farmers in the state after Sullivan and Ulster counties. In 1909, there were at least sixty-five Jewish farms in the county. By the 1920s, 200 Jewish families became farmers---dairy, poultry, and vegetables. Nassau’s Jews supported two kosher butchers and a kosher bakery where Max Panitch remembered you could buy “lovely rye bread.” Jewish farm families founded three synagogues in East Schodack, East Nassau, and Nassau in 1925, 1927, and 1913. <br /><br />Jewish residents avoided publicizing the creation of synagogues, because in the 1920s a chapter of the Ku Klux Klan, operated out of Chatham, in northern Columbia County, and local fraternal organizations, including the Odd Fellows and Masons, would not admit Jews. To survive on the rocky soil of southern Rensselaer County, some of the farmers innovated by taking in boarders in summer from Albany and New York City, turning the area into “The Little Catskills.” For example, a visitor could spend a week at the boarding house that became a kosher summer resort, Krouners Hotel, a smaller version of the famous Catskills Grossinger’s Hotel. (5)<br /><br />However, in the 1950s, Jewish farming declined in New York and across the country. Mechanization, growth of agribusiness, increased competition from the Middle West and South due to more efficient transportation methods, and abandonment of farming by the original Jewish settlers' descendants led to a sharp drop in Jewish farmers. In the 1950s and 1960s, the federal government removed price supports for eggs and made few efforts to keep small farmers on the land. The synagogues in East Nassau and East Schodack closed, and the Nassau synagogue came close to shutting its doors in the 1970s. As Nassau became a partially suburban community, Jewish families from New York City and Albany kept the lights on. As one newcomer to Nassau noted, “the Nassau shul reminds her of her little shul in Brooklyn.” Some of the Jewish farmers' descendants stayed in the area, and some of the Jewish residents of Albany and Troy preferred a smaller synagogue with lower membership fees. <br /><br />In 2019, only one-third-generation the Jewish farmers remain in Rensselaer County. Elsewhere in the Hudson Valley, Jewish farming's decline abandoned synagogues in towns, such as Accord and Granite. Jewish farming in the Hudson Valley is a historical memory, as are the small summer resorts of Rensselaer County and the Catskills' major Jewish resorts. (6)<br /><br />Jewish immigrants who settled upstate New York left Europe in two separate migrations the first migration, called the German period in American Jewish history, came in the period of 1815 to 1870, half from Germany and a half from the Alsace region of France; the Austrian, Czech, Galician, and Hungarian regions of the Austrian Empire; and a few from Lithuania and Poland in the Russian Empire. After the end of the Napoleonic Wars, several German states, Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, reimpose restrictions on a residence, marriage, occupations, and economic activities for Jews. Related disabilities and economic pressures forced Jews to leave other parts of central Europe. Primarily young and relatively poor Jews migrated to the United States. After entering New York City, Jewish immigrants did not always stay and migrated north and west, establishing scattered Jewish communities from Yonkers to Buffalo in the 1820s to the 1860s. Jewish immigrants settling in Troy and Cohoes in the 1840s and 1850s formed part of this “German” migration. About 250,000 to 300,000 Jews came to the United States from 1815-1880. Their numbers paled compared to the millions of Protestants and Catholics from Germany who arrived simultaneously as the flood of Irish Catholics fleeing famine and poverty in the Green Isle. Jews made up about 10% of the German migration and zero percent of the Irish immigrant wave. <br /><br />From 1880 to 1924, one-third of the Jews in the Russian Empire, two million people immigrated to the United States. Another 500,000 Jews, 22 percent of the Jewish population of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, emigrated from Europe. At least 150,000 Jews from Romania fled to America. Driven out of the Russian Empire by the pogroms of 1869, the pogroms of 1881-82, May Laws of 1882, the expulsions of 1891, deteriorating economic opportunities, conscription, and the pogroms of 1903-1905, Jews fled Russia and the Tsar. <br /><br />Arriving on the Lower East Side of New York City, Jewish immigrants raised their glasses of tea to God bless the Tsar and keep him far away from me. Jews comprised five percent of the Russian population but made up fifty percent of the Russian Empire's emigrants. <br /><br />Immigrant Jews landed in America hoping for religious tolerance, economic opportunity, and to escape Russian captivity. Expanding Jewish population, local persecutions, starvation, and declining economic conditions forced the flight of Jews from Polish-speaking Galicia in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Draconian laws on Jewish economic activities, impoverishment of the Jewish population, and violent attacks in the 1880s started Jewish migration from Romania. <br /><br />Pogroms in Jassy, Arad, and Bucharest in 1899 and in 50 Moldavian towns in 1907 spurred 150,000 Jews to flee en masse to the United States. In reaction to these events, some Russian and Romanian Jews moved eastward to Palestine as Zionist settlers. However, most Jews who left Eastern Europe preferred the promised land of New York City or Chicago. Jewish immigrants from the Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires increased the Jewish communities in upstate cities, including Troy, Cohoes, and Albany settled as farmers in southern Rensselaer County and looking for economic opportunities in smaller communities, like Glens Falls and Hoosick Falls. (7) Jews came to stay, for one quarter to one-third of all immigrants returned to their home countries, but only three to seven percent of Jewish immigrants left the United States. <br /><br />“Our citizens have not been a little puzzled to find a large number of stores closed the past few days, the occasion of…the observance of the Jewish New Year, by those occupying the stores.” (8). This comment in a Troy newspaper represented one of the first recognitions that a new and totally alien religious minority with different holidays and religious traditions had arrived in Troy. Barnet Levy, a tailor, moved to Troy in 1837 and became its first Jewish resident. Emanuel Marks, a merchant, seeing economic opportunities in the growing Collar City (Troy), arrived in 1842. By 1851, enough Jews settled in Troy to organize a religious congregation. Led by Emanuel Gratz, the community met in two “rented rooms, one for men, one for women” in the Wotkyn’s Block on Congress Street. (9) In 1853, the congregation adopted the name Anshe Chesed (People of Kindness). One of the congregants served as rabbi and shochet. A year later, the community established a burial society, known as a Chevra Kadisha, to prepare burial bodies according to the customs of Orthodox Judaism. Troy's Gentile population's puzzlement articulated in the brief story in one of the local newspapers in 1859 began with creating a Jewish congregation and its attempt to live by Judaism's values and religious traditions. <br /><br />Jewish religious leader and publisher of Occident, Isaac Leeser, reported in October 1851 “in Hudson, there are several Jewish families. The same is the case in Troy, Schenectady, Watertown, Oswego, Binghamton, and probably other places in the state of New York.” (10) Jews from the southern German kingdoms and central Europe arrived from 1815 to 1880, establishing Jewish communities, as indicated by Leeser. For example, several Jews got off a canal boat in 1839 and, joining other Jews who arrived earlier, started the Temple Society of Concord in Syracuse in December 1839. Twelve Jewish men who came to Rochester in the 1840s held their first New Year service on 7 October 1848 and established Berith Kodesh the next day. German Jews who immigrated to Albany organized Beth El in 1838. <br /><br />In 1845, a small group of Jewish immigrants in Poughkeepsie met for religious services, and on 8 March 1851 incorporated as Congregation Children of Israel. By 1854, seven Jewish families residing in Newburgh rented space for Temple Beth Jacob. Jewish peddlers and merchants arrived in Kingston in the 1850s, and in 1861 bought a Baptist Church to create Congregation Emanuel. These Jewish communities in the Hudson Valley and upstate New York paralleled the arrival of Jews in Troy, and all belonged to the migration of Jews from the German states and central Europe. The arrival of Jewish immigrants to the United States established the Jews as a small but widely scattered religious minority in America from 1815 to 1880. As a result of this immigration, Jews created “one thousand significant Jewish settlements in at least thirty-two of the thirty-eight states, four territories, and Washington, D.C.”11 In 1820, about three thousand Jews lived in America, and in 1880 the Jewish population increased to about 250,000.<br /><br />Jewish immigrants settling in New York adapted their occupational/work experience in Europe to the new environment. In Germany, Jews survived as petty traders. From eighty to ninety percent of Jewish families engaged in petty trade, it rose to ninety-six percent in Bavaria. Most Jewish men lived by peddling and/or running small shops. According to historian Hasia Diner “most Jews barely eked out a living wage from their shops or peddling routes,” and most Jews remained poor. 12 Poor Jewish men, followed by poor Jewish women, became the wretched refuse, emigrating from Germany and middle Europe from 1815 to 1880. Similarly, most Jews who lived in the Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, or Romania, who immigrated to the United States from 1880 to 1924” were the proste yidn---simple and poor.”(13)<br /><br />All spoke Yiddish, the lingua franca of the Jewish people from Alsace to Russia. Many could understand and read Hebrew, the Old Testament language, but few knew English upon arriving in America, whether in 1820 or 1890. The Jews who settled in Troy and upstate New York shared these experiences and backgrounds. Almost all were proste yidn. All spoke Yiddish, and many who arrived from 1815-1880 spoke German, and some spoke Polish or Hungarian. <br /><br />Immigrants who reached Troy and upstate New York after 1880 usually also spoke Polish. Some knew German, but many could converse in Lithuanian, Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, or Romanian, depending on the languages of their Gentile neighbors they traded with.<br /><br />Most Jews initially followed the trading practices brought from Europe. For example, one-quarter of the members of two synagogues in Albany, Beth El and Anshe Emeth (Orthodox and Reform, respectively), worked as peddlers, and two-thirds of Syracuse's Jews eked out a living as peddlers in the 1850s. Descriptions of early Jewish residents, whether in Poughkeepsie, Kingston, Newburgh, or Rochester, emphasized that Jews worked as peddlers, tailors, or ran small shops. Samuel Reznick, who wrote a history of Troy congregation Berith Sholom noted that the first congregation members “were modest people, tailors, peddlers, and merchants.”(14) Rabbi Isaac Mayer Wise recorded the modest means of his Albany congregation members in the 1840s and early 50s that applied to Jewish immigrants to Troy, Cohoes, Newburgh, and other upstate Jewish communities. “Few families in Albany had parlors furnished with carpets…The majority lived in two or three rooms.”(15) Women of the congregation lacked money for good or fashionable clothes, and the men drank three-cent beers and smoked three-cent cigars. Appealing to the general public for financial assistance to build a new synagogue, Troy’s Congregation Berith Sholom described its membership in March 1870 as “few in numbers and limited in pecuniary means.”16 In the 1880s, the two hundred Jewish families living in Troy resided “in tenements and private homes in the lowlands near the fetid Hudson River, not far from the belching ironworks and foundries.”(17)<br /><br />A partial study of the Troy Jewish community completed by Allan Cohen and Gabe Izraelevitz analyzed occupational categories in 1910 revealed that most Jews earned a living as peddlers, tailors, or small merchants.18 Whether they came to Albany or Troy in 1850, as part of the “German” migration, or in 1910, as part of the East European mass migration, Jews were the huddled masses yearning to be free, the refuse of humanity, the proste yidn. While other ethnic groups engaged in peddling, it became the premier trade of the Jews in America. For many, they served as a bridge occupation to owning a small store or rising into the lower middle class. <br /><br />The article in the Troy newspaper in 1859 that some of the Jewish peddlers had made the transition to running small shops announced the presence of Jews because they closed for Rosh Hashanah. One of the Troy newspapers printed a column "Rosh Hashanah for Citizens” describing “why certain shops were mysteriously closed in the middle of the week.” (19) The Christian majority noticed when Jewish shopkeepers from Yonkers to Buffalo closed on unusual days, coinciding with Jewish holidays, unknown to non-Jews, and a source of amused bewilderment at the strange customs and behavior of this new religious minority. <br /><br />Almost as soon as Jews organized a congregation in Troy divisions, they split the community into two warring factions creating a second congregation, Bikur Cholim. Over a decade earlier, the first Jewish congregation in Albany, Beth El, split over whether to follow a German Jewish (minhag Ashkenaz) or Polish Jewish ritual (minhag Polin), reflecting that many Jewish settlers in Albany emigrated from the Polish-speaking Poznan region of Prussia. <br /><br />The dissenters organized Beth El Jacob in 1841. Whether this caused the split in Troy in 1855 remains a mystery? Differences in ritual or regions in Europe Jewish immigrants emigrated from produced most of the splits in 19th Century Jewish communities. Jews from the same region in Europe felt more comfortable praying with people with similar experiences and backgrounds, preferring to join synagogues with landsmen rather than Jews from other parts of Europe, “making the term Jewish unity an oxymoron.”(20) In many Jewish communities across New York, these splits developed, for example, in Utica and Syracuse in the 1850s. Both Troy congregations managed to acquire burial grounds on Mount Ida and took responsibility for the sick. Jewish divisions in Troy produced conflict over ownership of the single Sefer Torah, the Jewish Scriptures that escalated into the Hebrew Bible Case in the local Troy court in 1859. Abram Jacobs, who served as rabbi for Anshe Chesed, testified as did at least two congregation members, Isaac Cohen and Louis Gross, Newspapers in Troy, picked up on this unusual dispute and covered it the chagrin of the tiny Jewish community. To the dismay of the Troy Jewish community, their divisions over ownership of the Torah became public knowledge in court and in the press. <br /><br />When Aaron Ksensky arrived in Troy in 1857, he attempted to heal the breach in the community’s unity. Still, as the Hebrew Bible Case suggests, it took several years before his negotiations succeeded. During Rosh Hashanah 1864, the press noted “the places of business of the Hebrews if this city were closed last evening” as the Jewish community observed the holiday in the buildings used as separate synagogues by the two congregations. (21) The press repeatedly stressed the odd holidays of Jews and businesses' strange closings to observe the holidays.<br /><br />To the Hudson Valley Christians in the middle of the 19th Century, the Jewish immigrants were an inoffensive “other.” The thirty Jewish families in Troy in 1864 appeared to the press as“’ quiet, decent, and a respectable and orderly class of citizens, always pay their bills promptly, and while sharp in trade, they are nevertheless among our most inoffensive…inhabitants.’” (22) Not surprisingly, the Troy Whig description combined praise and traditional stereotypes about Jews being sharp in trade. Jews appeared inoffensive but not totally trustworthy neighbors. <br /><br />Stereotypes about Jews served as the rationale for the emergence of social and economic discrimination against Jews starting in the 1860s. Escalating in the 1870s with the Grand Hotel's famous incident in 1877 in nearby Saratoga Springs--- hotels, restaurants, resorts, clubs, and businesses barred or limited Jewish customers and employees until the 1960s. While the press described Jews as inoffensive immigrants, it did not prevent discrimination against Jews because Christian Americans viewed Jews as the “other.” (23) Even children felt the disapproval of their Christian schoolmates. In the 1870s and 1880s, a jingle popular in Troy and sung by school children across the United States went this way:<br /><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><b>I had a piece of pork. I put it on a fork.</b></div><div style="text-align: center;"><b>And gave it to the curly-headed Jew.</b></div><div style="text-align: center;"><b>Pork, Pork, Pork, Jew, Jew, Jew. </b></div><br />Morris “Marty” Silverman, son of a tailor, grew up in Troy during World War I. Priests delivered sermons denouncing Jews as Christ-killers on Sundays. “and on Monday mornings, we Jewish public-school students were sometimes beaten up.” (24) Christian students at Troy High School barred Jews from membership in fraternities and sororities. Jews remained the other. Jews also faced occasional violence. In the late 19th Century, Troy was not “the spiritual home of National Brotherhood Week.” (25) Like peddler Hyman Bernstein, Jewish immigrants became the targets of “ugly incidents that victimized” Jews on Troy's streets. A “group of street urchins” attacked him with stones “and presumably anti-Semitic epithets” in November 1883, and a French-Canadian saloonkeeper stole his peddler’s pack. Four years later, during the Fourth of July celebrations, Hyman and his son Sam “were in the center of a brawl on River Street that appeared to break down on religious lines---Jews versus Catholics.”26 Jews found relations with their Catholic neighbors a confusing mix because individual Catholics might attack them while other Irish, Polish, Ukrainian or Italian Catholics in adjoining neighborhoods showed no animus to Jews. Gentile neighbors developed friendly relations with Jews who lived in South Troy, where there were few Jewish families since most Jews lived in the Jewish neighborhood near downtown. Catholic leaders, both religious and secular, worked with Jewish leaders and showed sensitivity to the Jewish community's concerns. Troy’s Irish mayors in the late 19th like mayor Dennis J. Whelan, Century, seeking the votes of Jewish immigrants “religiously attended synagogue dedications.” (27) Troy's political leaders kept a lid on public expressions of anti-Semitism because they wanted Jews to become political supporters and assimilate them into the political process. Irish American political leaders embraced the Jewish community. <br /><br />However, Protestant elites and many working-class Catholics and Protestants disliked Jews. As historian Hasia Diner concluded: “for them, Jews served as a collective symbol of alienness, of being different from everyone else, and at odds with the ideals of Christian America.” (28)<br /><br />Meanwhile, Jewish immigrants to Troy faced problems of division, unity, and growth. On 5 June 1864, members, Bikur Cholim, heightened the Jewish community's divisions by dedicating a new synagogue on the third floor of the Vail’s building, on the corner of Congress and River streets, in the Jewish neighborhood. By hiring a rabbi, Louis Nested, the congregation reinforced their independence from congregation Anshe Chesed.<br /><br />Two rabbis consecrated the new synagogue, Rabbi E. Jacobs of Syracuse delivered a sermon in English, and Rabbi Louis Gothold of Albany spoke in German. Ceremonies around placing the Torah Scrolls in the ark impressed the local press, who marveled at the peculiar features of Jewish houses of worship.29<br /><br />In theory, the new synagogue and its congregation lasted only two years because Aaron Ksensky managed to persuade the two congregations to meet and merge into Berith Sholom (Covenant of Peace), incorporated on 26 March 1866. The signers of the incorporation papers and trustees of the new congregation included members from both previous Jewish groups. Even the newspapers commented on the Jewish community's divisions and welcomed the reconciliation of the two congregations. According to the Daily Whig, the “internal division in the Jewish community “’ wasted their energies and retarded their usefulness.’” (30) Combining membership and additional Jewish immigration to Troy led to a need to construct Troy's first synagogue. Due to the lack of financial resources, the Building Committee issued a public appeal for contributions in 1869 and 1870, and Mayor Uri Gilbert donated $50 to the building fund.31 His contribution documented that although many working-class Catholics, primarily Irish and French-Canadian, and Protestants did not like or hated Jews, the political leaders welcomed the Jewish immigrants and endorsed their efforts to create religious and social institutions. Mayor Gilbert, a devout Episcopalian and a Republican supported the synagogue's construction, suggesting that Troy’s political leaders, Democrats and Republicans, Catholics, and Protestants, publicly welcomed Jews, even if many of their constituents did not.<br /><br />On 12 June 1870, the Building Committee, in a much-publicized occasion, set the cornerstone for the new synagogue on Third and Division streets. Local dignitaries, including Mayor Gilbert and the Albany Jewish community leaders, attended the cornerstone's laying. The ceremony “attracted a large crowd of spectators and was decidedly interesting as well as an impressive event.” Another Troy paper congratulated “our Hebrew citizens” on “erecting their own house of worship.” (32) Berith Sholom drafted a new Constitution and established a new Chevra Kadisha Society to deal with the ill and bury the dead.33 The dedication of the new synagogue on 22 September 1870 also turned into a well-publicized affair. All Jewish owned businesses closed to celebrate the new synagogue, and prominent non-Jews attended the dedication. Congregation Berith Sholom embraced Reform Judaism, like introducing mixed seating of men and women, although it did not formally affiliate with the Reform movement until 1890. Rabbi Max Schlesinger of Reform Anshe Emeth in Albany delivered the major address at the dedication affirming the connection to Reform Judaism. Perceptive non-Jews like local historian Nathaniel Sylvester writing in 1880, described Berith Sholom as representative of the progressive wing of Judaism, “leaning towards a reform in their mode of worship.” (34) Berith Sholom today has the oldest continuous use synagogue building in upstate New York. <br /><br />Reform innovations alienated part of the congregation, and even before the dedication, they withdrew from Berith Sholom. On 4 August 1870, “a number of our leading Hebrews met and resolved they would organize a society which would be strictly orthodox.”35 They elected a committee of fifteen to purchase land for a new Orthodox synagogue. As the Troy Press observed, the dissenters comprised “many leading citizens and representatives of their class in the city.” (36) The congregation adopted Beth Israel Bikur Cholem and incorporated it on 24 October 1870 to confirm their status as a separate synagogue. Twenty years earlier, a Reform-minded group led by Rabbi Isaac Mayer Wise, the founder of Reform Judaism, split from Orthodox Beth El in Albany to form Anshe Emeth. Troy's split represented American Judaism's evolution into distinct branches with different interpretations of Jewish law, customs, and traditions. To Orthodox Jews, mixed seating and family pews verged on sacrilege, and they found other innovations, like a choir, music in services, dropping of certain prayers, greater use of English and less Hebrew in services, and declining commitment to observing the Sabbath and keeping kosher as disconcerting and unacceptable. <br /><br />Orthodox Judaism in Troy received a boost in the early 1870s with Polish and Russian Jews' immigration. The new immigrants did not want to join Beth Israel Bikur Cholem and wanted to create a new Orthodox congregation. This paralleled developments in other Jewish communities, for example, Albany and Schenectady, because each group of immigrants with different ethnicities and or allegiances to different religious practices wanted to establish a synagogue that reminded them of their home congregations. Immigrants in Troy identified as German, Hungarian, Polish, or Russian Jews. German Jews dominated Berith Sholom. Polish and Russian Jews preferred Beth Israel. Hungarians organized a new congregation. Recently arrived immigrants formed Congregation Sharah Tephilah in 1873 and incorporated on 15 November 1875. Three hundred Jewish congregations and Jewish societies, like the Free Sons of Israel, attended the cornerstone ceremony for Sharah Tephilah on 9 October 1887. Rabbis from Albany and New York City participated in the ceremonies. Several city officials, including the school superintendent, police commissioner, several aldermen, and the comptroller, came to show their support for the Jewish community. Mayor Whelan laid the cornerstone at the corner of Division and River streets. Like mayor Whelan, Irish Catholic politicians and Protestant political leaders confirmed that Jews were recognized members of the Troy community. (37)<br /><br />New Polish and Russian Jewish immigrants organized the fourth congregation, also Orthodox, Chai Adam, in 1886. Seventeen Jews met on 6 July 1886 to organize a congregation. Chai Adam established its own Chevra Kadisha on 22 June 1887, and on 30 January 1897, purchased a house on River Street for a synagogue. In the 1890s, members of the Jewish community could walk to any of the four synagogues located in the Jewish neighborhood's heart along River, Division, and 5th streets. Synagogues for the immigrant generation served as the center of Jewish life for all life cycle events from bris (circumcision) to Chevra Kadisha preparation for funerals. <br /><br />Troy newspapers took a special interest in Jewish weddings and reported more elaborate weddings from as early as the 1860s since Jewish weddings appeared somewhat exotic to non-Jews. (38) The Jewish neighborhood provided a sense of security for several generations of Jewish immigrants. Jews could walk to a kosher bakery or butcher shop, or purchase at one of the Jewish owned businesses on River Street. Julius Platt, who emigrated from Poland in 1920, remembered walking down 1st and 2nd streets on a Saturday afternoon and smelling “’ fresh Challos and tsholent from most houses.” As a young man, he delivered kosher meat, and residents often urged him to stay for a “taste of Kugel or chicken soup.’’ (39)<br /><br />Changes in the Jewish community began as early as 1908 when Chai Adam’s members realized they lacked the financial resources to continue as an independent congregation and merged with Beth Israel Bikur Cholem under Rabbi's leadership Hyman Lasker. The rabbi arrived in 1895 and served as rabbi for Chai Adam and Sharah Tephilah. With the merger, he also served as rabbi for Beth Israel. Lasker emerged as a well-respected rabbi in the Capital District, leader of the Orthodox Jews and the Zionist movement in Troy, and a public figure in Troy for decades because of his public service and philanthropic contributions until he died in 1932. <br /><br />Lasker delivered the principal address at the cornerstone corner for Beth Israel’s new synagogue on River Street on 24 October 1909. Comparing Russia to the United States, Lasker reminded the audience of the persecution of Jews in Russia and cordiality between Jewish and Christian clergy in America. Lasker urged the community to drop the ethnic distinctions that divided local Jews. He “urged that there should be no distinction between the German, Russian, and Hungarian Jews.” (40) Troy’s political leaders complemented the congregation and Troy's Jews for constructing a new synagogue; Republican Mayor Elias Mann laid the cornerstone and gave a speech, as did Rensselaer County Judge M. Tierney, an Irish Catholic Republican. Several other members of Troy’s political leaders attended to endorse the Jewish house of worship. When the synagogue was dedicated on 26 September 1910, the press gave a good deal of favorable coverage to the event, suggesting that Jews had become a recognized and respected community segment. (41) Once again, Troy’s political leaders, Democrats, and Republicans, Protestants and Catholics, blessed the construction of a new synagogue and the acceptance of Jews as an integral part of the community, not the other.<br /><br />America offered the opportunity for religious freedom that Rabbi Lasker celebrated, and Americanization and immigration restriction in the 1920s reduced the ethnic divisions within the Jewish community. Jews and Gentiles honored Rabbi Lasker for twenty-five years of service to the Jewish community. For his philanthropic endeavors in 1920.42, Freedom in America created a double-edged sword for Orthodox Jews. It provided the ability to maintain their religious values but allowed their children to choose other options. In 1928 younger members of Orthodox congregations met and decided to abandon elements of traditional Judaism. They wanted to adopt mixed seating, simplify some prayers, and use more English in religious services. Reform Judaism of Temple Berith Sholom went too far in making innovations in traditional Jewish practice, but clinging to Orthodox Judaism did not fit the American environment and appeared a legacy of the Old World. Even the gifted leadership of Rabbi Lasker could not stop the movement for change and the impact of Americanization. The grown children of Orthodox Jews established Temple Beth El in 1929, a Conservative congregation, incorporated on the 23 April 1929 with Rabbi Joel Geffen as its first religious leader. Beth El’s founding took place simultaneously with the creation of Conservative synagogues in Albany and Schenectady. Many American born children of Orthodox Jews moved into the Conservative Movement. Conservative Judaism would soon develop into the dominant branch of American Judaism. Orthodox Judaism in Troy gradually declined due to Americanization, assimilation, immigration restriction, and the aging of the immigrant generations. In 1961 Beth Israel and Sharah Tephilah merged into Beth Tephilah, followed by Beth Jacob of Cohoes joining in 1968. The Orthodox Jewish community continued to decline in membership and financial resources.<br /><br /><b>Community Institutions</b><br /><br /><br />Rabbis did not like secular Jewish communal institutions' proliferation from the middle of the 19th Century into the early 20th Century. Clubs, fraternal organizations, societies, lodges, and other communal associations usually did not monitor members' behavior or admonish members to fulfill specific religious obligations. In America, a “decoupling of previously fused ethnic and religious components of Jewish group life and self-identification” developed.<br /><br />“Yiddishkeyt---as a folk or a people with a common history---became separable from Judaism” and produced “a rapid proliferation of religion unrelated social and cultural institutions.” (43) Jews in Troy joined for fellowship, socializing, helping the needy, preserving Jewish identity, and creating a sense of belonging. (44) Jewish residents of Troy established numerous institutions for social, fraternal, and philanthropic purposes. In November 1873, Troy’s Jews established the Hebrew Benevolent Society assists the poor, aid in the burying of the dead and provides fellowship to its members. The Jeremiah Lodge of Bnai Brith, founded in October 1866, a chapter of a national organization of German Jews, attracted a membership consisting of main congregants of Berith Sholom. According to a local paper, this “social gathering of our Jewish fellow citizens” in November 1867 “was very largely attended and was in every aspect a complete success.” (45) In 1872, Polish Jews founded a chapter of another fraternal organization, Joshua Lodge of Kesher Shel Barzel(Chain of Iron). In the 1880s, the Alexander Lodge of Brith Abraham opened, and it appealed to German and Hungarian Jews. Chapters of the Free Sons of Israel and the Sons of Benjamin were chartered. These fraternal organizations “combined ideals of ideals of mutual benefit with social and recreational functions.”(46) These organizations began as grassroots societies from Jewish male immigrants and their children to create a community sense. The lodges fostered social responsibility, fellowship, and Jewishness (Yiddishkeyt). Chapters of these fraternal organizations existed in every significant Jewish community from New York City to Buffalo, including Troy, Albany, and Schenectady. Members of the community did not ignore politics. Liberal Jews organized the Hebrew. Progressive Lodge in 1918, Conservative members of the community could join the Albany based Jewish Republican Club in the 1920s. More radical Jews followed Albany's model, a chapter of the Workmen’s Circle was formed in 1904 and established a Troy chapter. Combining socialism, Yiddish culture, and fraternal organizational structure, Workmen’s Circle (Arbeiter Ring) appealed to Jews from Poland, Lithuania, and Russia, especially those who belonged to the Jewish socialist labor movement in the Russian Empire, known as the Bund. Some Jewish socialists joined the Schenectady based Jewish section of the Socialist Party. Jewish anarchists joined the Albany-based Germinal group sympathetic to the views of Jewish anarchist Emma Goldman. <br /><br />By 1905, Jewish women established several charitable and social associations. Berith Sholom developed the first Sisterhood in 1893, and women in each of the other synagogues created their own Sisterhoods. Female members of Beth El created the last of the Sisterhoods in 1929. As early as 1877, twelve women organized the Ladies Hebrew Benevolent Society to provide financial aid and emotional support for the Jewish community's poor and transient members. In 1883, women founded the Rebecca Chapter of Kesher Shel Barzel. <br /><br />Women also established the Hebrew Shelter Society and Ladies’ Hebrew Aid Society. Jewish women in the Capital District usually associated with Reform synagogues started chapters of a national organization, the National Council of Jewish Women, as Troy and Albany did. <br /><br />Troy women created one of the first female chapters of the Zionist movement, Daughters of Zion, in 1898, and sent women as representatives to national Zionist conferences. (47) Later, in 1926 women created a Troy chapter of Hadassah, another Zionist group known for its charitable work. Like male societies, women’s groups cared for the sick, arranged for women's burials, provided charity, and engaged in social events, like picnics, “dime parties,” and theatricals. Women organized Purim balls as a mixture of dancing, fun, and an effective way to raise money for the poor. Jewish women’s societies emphasized helping women in distress and alleviating the community's female members' poverty. (48) Women’s groups served a social function to create community bonds in a new land and retain a Jewish identity. <br /><br />Sisterhoods allowed women to engage in social activities and fellowship within congregational boundaries. Simultaneously, groups like Daughters of Zion or Ladies’ Hebrew Aid Society ignored these limitations and provided a public space for Jewish women.<br /><br />In 1912 a group “of the young Hebrews of the city” met and formed the Young Men’s Hebrew Association (YMHA) and incorporated it in 1913. (49) A YMHA chapter first appeared in Troy in 1879 but mysteriously collapsed. Apparently, the new Y grew out of two Jewish groups of the early 20th Century, the American Israelite Club and Herzl Literary Association, organized in 1906. Young men looking for activities that did not fit within synagogues or fraternal organizations took the lead to organize the Ys. Younger immigrants and the American born sons of East European immigrants went to work at an early age. Still, they longed for recreational opportunities, especially the American sports of basketball, baseball, and football. <br /><br />Initially, the Y rented rooms until it purchased a club headquarters at 87 First Street in 1917. It grew from twenty members in 1912 to 450 in 1918 and created affiliated branches, Juniors, and Young Judeans. Women established a Ladies Auxiliary in 1916 that became Young Women’s Hebrew Association (YWHA). Y’s developed in the United States in the mid-19th Century as recreation, education, social activities, and athletics in a Jewish environment. Ys “combined literary activities with sports, edifying lectures with exercise and fun."’ (50) Young Jewish men developed the Y movement independently of the later YMCA.<br /><br />The Ys maintained strong connections to Jewishness and sponsored Jewish religious activities. Under the United Hebrew Charity Organization's joint auspices, the Y hosted a Hebrew School starting in 1924. Rabbi Lasker conducted religious meetings for Jewish young people at the Y in the 1920s. The Y sponsored Friday night Sabbath services. From its inception, the Troy YMHA served the community for other Jewish groups, like Zionist youth groups that met at the Y. It became an institution for the whole Jewish community, their “Communal Home.” (51) Reform and Orthodox Jews could work together at the Y with the approval of rabbinical leaders. (52) The Y combated anti-social behavior, like juvenile delinquency, and served as an agent for Americanizing the immigrant while retaining Jewishness. Ys helped Americanize East European immigrants while providing “a valuable social and cultural forum.”(53) During World War I, the Y combined social, athletic, educational, and recreational functions with patriotic service to the community through soldiers' and sailors’ welfare. Because of the war-related work, President Woodrow Wilson blessed the Y movement, and it reassured American Jews and Jewish immigrants concerned about their acceptance into American society. (54) By the late 1920s, the Y movement gave birth to the Jewish Community Center of Troy. Similar JCCs appeared in Albany, Schenectady, and every Jewish community in New York, where a Y chapter existed. Community centers broadened the sense of Jewish identity combining secular and religious components. Historian Howard Sachar argued that Jewish community centers “translated Judaism, and Jewish identity, into the widest ambit of Jewish civilization.” (55)<br /><br /><b>Kaddish for President Lincoln (56)</b><div><b><br /></b><br />While speaking at the laying of the cornerstone of Beth Israel in 1909, Rabbi Lasker proclaimed to the audience: “Let us be patriotic, American patriots, and Jewish believers. Let us teach our children to be ready to shed their last drop of blood for their country, America. Let them hold up the Bible in one hand and the flag of the Stars and Stripes in the other.”(57) Rabbi Lasker emphasized one of Troy’s Jews and American Jewish history's major themes-- American-born Jews and Jewish immigrants' desire to be considered Americans while retaining their Jewish identity. When major events took place, national tragedies, the deaths of presidents, and the two world wars, Jews wanted to show their loyalty to their adopted country. <br /><br />Troy's Jewish citizens, all recent immigrants, adopted resolutions on 17 April 1865 expressing their regrets at “the death of our beloved President,” Abraham Lincoln. Two days later, the “synagogue of the Jewish congregation, Anshe Chesed, was draped in mourning.” All the Jews in Troy and many Christian Germans joined in the traditional Jewish mourning service led by Rabbi H. G. Salomon paid tribute to the fallen president. The rabbi also stressed that Jews were “true and loyal citizens.” Congregational President, Frank Hartsfeld, followed saying that “the name of Lincoln will be identified with our nationality and greatness.” (58) Members of Anshe Chesed and many Christian Germans joined in the Kaddish, the traditional prayer for President Lincoln's death. Jews and non-Jews, members of the Concordia Society, a German language literary and social club on River Street, held their own service to commemorate “the sad and untimely death of President Lincoln.” Frank Hartsfeld, president of that association and the synagogue, and Rabbi Salomon spoke in honor of the murdered president and Christian members. Following President Andrew Johnson's proclamation, all the churches and Anshe Chesed held a second set of religious observances for Lincoln on 24 April 1865. (59)<br /><br />The Jews of Troy showed their loyalty as Americans in other national tragedies. When Charles Guiteau killed President James Garfield in July 1881, all the Jews in Troy met in a joint meeting to honor President Garfield's memory. (60) A few years later, when former President Ulysses Grant died, Berith Sholom held a memorial service for the president. (61) The murder of President William McKinley in 1901 coincided with the Jewish High Holidays, and hundreds of synagogues in New York City paid their respects to the assassinated McKinley. Jews felt sorrow at his death because, for many Jewish immigrants, McKinley symbolized American freedom from Russian persecution. Rabbi Lasker, an immigrant from Russia, paid respect to McKinley at Sharah Tephilah, describing him as “one of the best of our Presidents.”(62) Congregation Berith Sholom held its own memorial service for the “martyred President.”(63) When President Warren G. Harding died of natural causes in 1923. Rabbi Lasker held a joint memorial service with other congregations at Sharah Tephilah. Lasker emphasized Harding’s endorsement of Zionism. Rabbi Lasker eulogized Harding for supporting the right “that we, Israelites, should be recognized as a nation with a claim to our ancient home, Palestine.” (64) In April 1945, the Orthodox congregations held a special memorial service for President Franklin Roosevelt while Rabbi Charles Lesser at Berith Sholom led a service for “Franklin Roosevelt, the Modern Moses.”65 Finally, after the assassination of President John F. Kennedy in November 1963, the Jewish community held memorial services at Berith Sholom,66 Holding commemorations and special services for assassinated presidents and those that died of natural causes allowed the Jewish community to show their loyalty to America and shared bonds of sorrow with other Americans. By holding services in synagogues, the Jewish community reinforced their identity as Americans, their Jewishness, and the acceptance of Jews in American society. As Rabbi Lasker had urged in 1909, Troy’s Jews repeatedly showed their American patriotism from Lincoln's assassination to Kennedy's murder. <br /><br />World War I provided another opportunity for Jews to prove their identity as Americans. During World War I, Troy’s Jews demonstrated their loyalty by joining the military, supporting the troops, and engaging in civilian related wartime activities. The local Jewish newspaper printed the roll of honor of Jewish men from Troy in the American armed forces.<br /><br />Approximately 172 Jewish men from Troy and vicinity saw service. Also, Harry Rubenstein from Hoosick Fallsjoined the Canadian military and was severely gassed at the Battle of Cambrai. The Germans killed almost all of the 2,500 men in his regiment, and only about a dozen survived. Twenty-year-old Hyman Koplivitz, son of Rabbi Koplovitz, of 117 River Street, joined the Jewish Legion of the British Army and saw duty in Palestine. Several Troy Jews suffered wounds in service, like Benjamin Fivel, He had previously been stationed along the Mexican border and was one of the first men from Troy sent overseas. His three brothers were also in the Army. (67) One Jewish soldier from Troy, Private David Chodikoff, of 138 Third Street, was killed in action on 26 July 1918. David was the Treasurer of the YMHA. <br /><br />His two brothers, Max and Israel, also served in the U.S. Army, but they survived the war. (68) Sergeant David Brown, a YMHA member, was gassed at Chateau-Thierry, and at Mt. Blanc carried messages under heavy artillery fire “for which he was recommended for the Croix de Guerre.”(69) Unfortunately, some of the draft boards in the Capital District engaged in anti-Semitism, as the Tri-City Jewish Chronicle editor noted, “we have heard rumors of anti-Semitic utterances and actions.” The editor, Rabbi Joseph Jasin of Reform Gates of Heaven synagogue in Schenectady, emphasized, “there must be no compromise with anti-Semitism at a time like this.”(70) Even in the middle of the war, some Trojans in positions of power could not put aside their hostility toward Jews. <br /><br />Members of the YMHA kept in contact with Jewish men in the military. When five Jewish boys from Troy were drafted and sent for training, the YMHA gave them a “rousing farewell reception” in May 1918. The Y was “thronged with friends and relatives of the departing boys, and who had gathered to bid them farewell.” President Joseph Hormats and YWHA President Rose Epstein “delivered stirring farewell addresses” (71). In service, Jewish boys received mail, comfort kits, and Hanukkah kits from the Y. Men in the military frequently asked whether the Troy YMHA basketball team had defeated the Albany or Schenectady, teams. They also wanted the latest news from Troy. Members of the Jewish community opened up their homes to Jewish boys from outside the area stationed at the Watervliet Arsenal, inviting Jewish soldiers to visit for Sabbath dinners or participate in Passover seders. The Jewish Welfare Board in Troy, Albany, and Schenectady reached out to Jewish soldiers from the Capital District. It helped Jewish men stationed at military camps in the region, as the Troy Welfare Board aided Jewish soldiers stationed at the Watervliet Arsenal. Rabbi Lasker led a local drive for Liberty Loans, and his raising of $15,000 won the praise of the citywide Liberty Loan committee. Joseph Hormats became a member of the city’s War Savings Stamp Campaign. Members of the YWHA engaged in Red Cross activities and welfare work to support the war and joined Troy's Patriotic League because of many war-related actions. (72) Troy’s Jewish community helped Jews in the military and engaged in activities that supported the war effort carrying out Rabbi Lasker’s suggestion that Troy Jews should be patriotic Americans. Mayor Cornelius Burns, an Irish American Catholic and Democrat, praised Troy’s Jewish community for their contributions to the war effort. Jews gave “their sons and daughters in the war for democracy,” telling the Jewish community what they wanted to hear that Jews were patriotic Americans and not the other. (73) What is less clear is whether any local Jewish socialists or anarchists engaged in anti-war protests or were rounded up during the post-war Red Scare?<br /><br />Jewish veterans of World War I met several times after the war but did not organize until 1935. (74) War veterans in Troy, Albany, and Schenectady formed chapters of Jewish War Veterans, a national organization, because they were concerned about the rise of anti-Semitic activities and meetings of local chapters of the German American Bund, a pro-Nazi group. <br /><br />On at least one occasion, members of the Troy Jewish War Veterans disrupted a Bund meeting at Germania Hall on River Street. The Jewish War Veterans promoted the message that Jews were patriotic Americans and in 1936 ran a full-page advertisement recording the service of Jews in American wars, especially World War I.75 Spurred on by the veterans and YMHA, the Jewish community followed the example of Jews in Albany and Schenectady establishing the Troy Jewish Community Council, as an umbrella organization for all Jewish associations. The idea for community councils developed in Utica in the 1930s to pool financial resources in the Depression. Meanwhile, the Jewish War Veterans endorsed the neutrality laws and opposed American involvement in another war in Europe. (76)<br /><br />Events, however, created a new group of men serving in the military. Once World War II began, local Jews volunteered or got drafted and served as sailors, soldiers, or marines. At least 355 men spent time in the Army from 1940-1945. As in World War I, one local soldier, Joseph Weissblum, died in combat, and Congregation Beth El created the Weissblum Memorial Library to honor a fallen congregant. During the war, the Jewish Welfare Board reached out to men in service and provided aid to Jews assigned to camps in the Capital District. The Welfare Board coordinated fundraising and community events. Community members raised money for War Bonds and Saving Stamps, and women staffed USO Clubs. Members of the Y and Jewish Community Center kept in touch with boys in uniform. Families invited Jewish men from outside the military camps for Passover seders, High Holiday meals, and Sabbath dinners. Members of the Jewish Welfare Board adopted Camp Rucker in Dothan, Alabama, to send comfort packages to Jewish men stationed there.<br /><br />To show unity and combat anti-Semitism, the Y and Jewish Community Center joined with Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox churches in National Brotherhood Week. Ministers and rabbis exchanged pulpits to show common bonds between religions and wartime unity. (77) When the war in Europe ended, Troy’s synagogues responded to President Harry Truman’s call for special services of thanksgiving by joining the victory services of all churches, synagogues, and other worship houses May 1945. This reinforced the belief that we were all Americans who shared a common sacrifice and a joint victory despite religious differences. (78) <br /><br />Unfortunately, anti-Semitism did not end with victory in Europe or knowledge of the Holocaust. Troy Jews continued to express concern about anti-Semitism in this country. Representatives of upstate Jewish communities met in Troy in 1948. Sponsored by the American Jewish Committee and B’nai B’rith, upstate Jewish leaders met to discuss lingering bigotry. The Jews of Troy wanted to feel at home in America, but as late as 1948, they did not totally feel safe from the anti-Semitism their parents and grandparents fled Europe to escape. (79)<br /><br /><b>Solidarity of All Israel<br /></b><br /><br />Jews living in Troy identified with co-religionists at home and abroad. The Jewish community tried to help Jews in Europe and Palestine during foreign crises and supported efforts to create a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Abraham Nissan, a representative of the Jewish community in Tiberias, Palestine, arrived in the United States in 1861-62 to raise money for a synagogue and school. He stopped in Schenectady, Albany, and Troy in 1861. Congregations contributed, including ten dollars from Anshe Chesed.80 As early as 1896, several Jews in Troy organized a chapter of Lovers of Zion and solicited donations. In the wake of the First Zionist Congress held in Basle, Switzerland, in 1897, American Zionists quickly joined together in the Federation of American Zionists. Rabbi Lasker established two of the earliest Zionist groups in the United States, the Daughters of Zion and Sons of Zion chapters in Troy. Both chapters sent delegates to attend the 4 July 1898 meeting in New York City and endorsed the immigration of Jews to Palestine, encouraged the use of Hebrew, and promoted Jewish national consciousness. (81) When Theodore Herzl, the founder of modern Zionism, died in July 1904, Troy Zionists held a memorial service at Sharah Tephilah. Rabbi Lasker delivered the principal address. (82)<br /><br />Troy Jews joined with other American Jews to condemn government-inspired pogroms against Jews in the Russian Empire between 1903-1905. On 19 November 1905, Jews in Troy held a mass meeting to protest the pogroms. Rabbi Lasker gave the major speech denouncing the Russian government. He called on the Jewish community to participate in a national campaign, led by prominent American Jews, like Jacob Schiff, to raise funds for sufferers of the pogroms. Jews held a second meeting on 24 November to commemorate the 250th anniversary of the first Jews arriving in America at Berith Sholom. Troy’s Jews celebrated their American identity by decorating the pulpit with a large American flag, hearing the Reform Rabbi Meyer Noot praise the long history of Jewish contributions to America, and singing “America.” Also, Rabbi Noot seconded Rabbi Lasker’s call for Troy's Jewish community to donate to help “their persecuted brethren in Russia.” Jews raised $1,500 for Russian relief. (83) In light of the persecution of Jews in Russia, there appeared only two options---Jews should go to Palestine or come to America. A Troy newspaper, Troy Times, argued, the time had come for the restoration of a Jewish homeland in Palestine, but expressed the concern that “the United States stands between the Jews and Zion,” since America became the asylum for the Jews of Russia. The editor was correct since Russian Jews in far larger numbers preferred the promised land of New York to Jerusalem in the wake of the pogroms. (84)<br /><br />When World War I began in 1914, American Jews began a campaign to raise money for food and medicine to send to Jews in Eastern Europe displaced by the war and aid Jewish settlements in Palestine. Initially, Workmen’s Circle, Jewish labor groups, Orthodox Jews, Zionists, and the American Jewish Committee started separate campaigns to raise funds. Still, they soon agreed to collaborate through the Joint Distribution Committee, which assumed the responsibility to distribute relief to Jews abroad. President Woodrow Wilson declared 27 January 1916 as Jewish Relief Day. The Troy Jewish Relief Committee, headed by H. H. Butler as chair, and Mrs. Charles Laub, as chair of the Ladies Committee, solicited contributions from Jews and non-Jews in Troy and neighboring towns for the relief effort. Members of the Orthodox and Reform congregations supported the campaign, including Rabbi Lasker and Berith Sholom Isabella Hess's prominent congregant. Mayor Cornelius Burns, an Irish American Catholic, and Irish-born Monsignor John Walsh signed the appeal letter endorsing the campaign adding to the Jewish appeal's ecumenical nature. Two Catholic priests donated to Jewish relief. (85) <br /><br />Troy Jews continued to raise money for the displaced Jews of Eastern Europe until 1920. Zionist groups grew in Troy and United States during World War I, and Tri-City Jewish Chronicle recorded Zionist meetings and fundraising for Jews in Palestine. In June 1920, “the Jewish residents of this city turned out in large numbers this afternoon” and marched through the streets of Troy to buses carrying them to Albany to celebrate the freedom of Palestine from the Turks. (86)<br /><br />As the war ended, Polish troops killed 30,000 Jews along the Polish-Soviet borders. Ukrainian nationalists, anti-Bolshevik White Army soldiers, and some Red Army troops participated in the murder of 100,000 Jews in Ukraine. Another 150,000 Jews died of disease, exposure, and starvation in Ukraine. These atrocities were the worst mass murder of Jews in three hundred years. On 20 May 1919, the Jews of Troy held a mass meeting “against the massacres of our brethren in Poland” at Beth Israel synagogue under auspices of the YMHA. The meeting adopted resolutions asking the American government to intervene to stop the killings and sent copies to President Woodrow Wilson. (87) In December 1919, Troy Jews went to Schenectady in a Capital District Jewish meeting to protest the massacres in Ukraine. (88)<br /><br />The meeting adopted resolutions condemning the attacks and sent them to the Secretary of State. Robert Lansing and President Wilson.<br /><br />Ten years later, Arab pogroms against Jews in Palestine brought out the Jewish communities in Troy in protest. Jews held a mass meeting on 3 September 1929 at Beth Israel to protest the Arab attacks, pray for the dead, and solicit contributions for the Palestinian Jewish community members. They passed a series of resolutions condemning the attacks and calling on the British government to live up to the Balfour Declaration recognizing a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Troy’s Jews sent copies to President Herbert Hoover, Secretary of State Henry Stimson, and the British Ambassador. (89)<br /><br /> Even before the Night of the Broken Glass, Troy’s Jews expressed their concerns about the fate of Jews in Germany. As a result of meetings on 9 and 10 October 1938, Jews sent copies of resolutions to Washington. Benjamin Chuckrow acting for the Jewish War Veterans, wired President Franklin Roosevelt to pressure the British to open Palestine for Jewish refugees. Acting for Orthodox congregations Beth Israel and Sharah Tephilah, Rabbi Isaac Telcher telegraphed President Roosevelt, and Secretary of State Cordell Hull helped persuade the British to allow more German Jews into Palestine. (90) <br /><br />In the wake of the Night of the Broken Glass, the Troy press joined with the Jewish community in criticizing German behavior. One newspaper described the attacks on Jews as “a reign of terror quite unlike anything the world has known since the days of barbarism.” (91) In another editorial, the paper reminded residents of Troy of the Thanksgiving season, and in Germany, “hundreds of thousands of persons are being robbed of their possessions, hunted like wild beasts, driven from their homes, and deprived of their citizenship.” (92) Another Troy newspaper denounced “the outrageous persecution of the Jews.”93 One thousand Jews attended a talk by Rabbi Stephen Wise on 10 November 1938 attacking anti-Semitism and Hitler. (94) Each of the synagogues held special services “for the oppressed people of Europe” on 20 November 1938. (95) Over six hundred Jews attended a mass meeting on 21 November at the Jewish Community Center to raise funds to help Jews in Germany and Palestine. Another two hundred Jews met in Cohoes at Beth Jacob to aid Jews in Germany. Activities in Troy and Cohoes formed part of a national campaign by Jewish organizations to solicit donations for German Jews. (96) <br /><br />Nationally, Protestant and Catholic leaders attacked German anti-Semitism in the wake of Kristallnacht. Locally, the American Labor Party approved resolutions condemning German anti-.<br /><br />Semitism. Student representatives of area colleges met to condemn the Nazis but divided on the action. Siena and St. Rose endorsed a boycott of German goods, but RPI, Union, Sage, and Skidmore voiced reservations. On 13 November 1938, several Protestant ministers in Troy, Baptist, Methodist, and Presbyterian delivered sermons expressing outrage at Germany’s persecution of the Jews. In the wake of Kristallnacht, Jews, Catholics, and Protestants appeared united in condemning Germany's actions and anti-Semitism. (97)<br /><br />Once World War II began and the Germans invaded Poland in 1939, the Troy Jewish community's options to aid the Jews of Europe became limited. In January 1940, Rabbi Stephen Wise spoke at the Jewish Community Center as part of a national campaign to raise funds to help Jews in Germany and Jewish refugees.98 By December 1941, reports appeared in the press of the extermination of Jews in the Soviet Union. On 12 August 1942, the Jewish people of Troy and vicinity met at Sharah Tephilah to commemorate “in sorrow for the massacres of the Jews of Europe” and men killed in combat. (99) Jews in Troy held a second service of mourning for Polish Jews on 2 December 1942 led by Rabbi Isaac Teicher of Beth Israel and Sharah Tephilah. (100)<br /><br />For Troy’s Jewish community, the only solution for Jewish survivors was migration to Palestine, and the Zionist movement grew during World War II as a refuge for European Jews. On 4 April 1943, Congregation Beth El joined with 500 Conservative synagogues across the United States to support Zionism. The other Jewish congregation in Troy also held special services or meetings for Zionism. (101) In November 1943, Beth El paid tribute to Zionist leader Chaim Weizmann and the need for a Jewish homeland in Palestine. (102) The Troy Times Record agreed in an editorial: “The Coming Jewish State,’ that Zionism offered the best refuge for the persecuted Jews of Europe. When the war ended, the newspaper published another editorial: “Zionism Today,” supporting Palestine as the refuge for Holocaust survivors. (103). Troy’s Jews met in October 1945 at the Jewish Community Center to pray “to open the doors of Palestine to these distraught people in Europe.” (104)<br /><br />Some Jews in Troy and in neighboring Albany, Cohoes, Amsterdam, Gloversville, and Schenectady went beyond prayer. Donations were used to purchase ships to smuggle Jews from Europe to Palestine, hoping to avoid the British blockade. Searchlights, medical supplies, and weapons were donated or purchased and sent via Montreal to defend Jewish settlements in Palestine. Jews purchased arms at sporting goods stores, collected them from veterans, or raised money to turn them into gold bars to purchase Czechoslovakia arms for the Haganah. The Jewish self-defense agency in British controlled Palestine. Members of the Jewish community also purchased surplus weapons from the Watervliet Arsenal and searchlights from the Schenectady Navy Depot. Local Jews contributed bedding and supplies for two local agricultural training camps for Aliyah to Palestine, one outside Cohoes and the other at a farm in Averill Park near Troy. One young woman who went through one of the Aliyah farms married the son of future Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir. Jews in Troy met at Sharah Tephilah on 16 May 1948 to celebrate Israel's independence and pray for the survival of the Jewish nation. (105)<br /><br />When Israel appeared endangered in 1967 and 1973, Troy’s Jews rallied to support the Jewish state. At an emergency meeting on 8 June 1967, an overflow crowd of 600 people jammed the Jewish Community Center to voice their support for embattled Israel, as Beth El Rabbi Herman Horowitz proclaimed, “Israel is here to stay. Its life is not negotiable.” (106) Troy’s United Jewish Appeal set a goal of $250,000 to assist Israel. In 1973, 300 Jews met at the Jewish Community Center on 8 October to demonstrate support for Israel and raise money for Israel’s defense. Rabbis of the three Troy congregations gave speeches, as did other Jewish leaders, including the Jewish Community Council president and RPI’s Hillel president. This followed a mass rally held in Albany the night before. Jews from throughout the Capital District “displayed their support for Israel.” (107) Troy’s Jews, from 1861 to 1973, showed their consistent support for the plight of Jews in Europe and Palestine, as well as the endorsement of Zionism from 1896 to the creation of Israel. <br /><br /><br /><b>Conclusion</b><br /><br /><br />Studying Troy’s Jews is history from the bottom up. Looking at the Jewish community's development illustrated the unique nature of the Jewish experience as a small religious minority in the Hudson Valley and upstate New York and a non-Christian immigrant group's problems. <br /><br />As poor peddlers, tailors, and small shop keepers, they pooled their resources and created a community out of nothing. The immigrants established a minyan, wrote synagogue constitutions, rented or built a synagogue, purchased land for a cemetery, and hired a rabbi. Each of the Jewish congregations maintained a community that reflected the values, language, and ritual customs, whether German, Hungarian, Polish, or Russian, brought with them from Europe. These events got repeated in every Jewish community from New York to Buffalo but became more difficult and unique in the small Jewish communities in the Hudson Valley.<br /><br />What the congregations and their rabbis could not stop was the journey to Americanization. Berith Sholom represented the movement away from traditional Orthodox Judaism to Reform. German Jews tried to cling to German Kultur as the membership and leadership of the ConcordiaSociety showed and was a common feature of German Jews whether in Troy, Albany, or Schenectady. The American born children of Berith Sholom abandoned German in favor of English as part of Americanization. The children of Orthodox Jews found traditional Judaism old fashioned and switched to the more American Conservative Judaism of Beth El. The four Orthodox congregations in the Troy area eventually blended into the one remaining congregation due to Americanization, assimilation, the immigration laws of 1921 and 1924 that cut off new Jewish immigration, and the death of the immigrant generation. <br /><br />The ferment in the Jewish communities in Europe, especially in the Russian Empire, reappeared in America. Poor Jewish immigrants found solace in the four synagogues within walking distance in the Jewish neighborhood of Troy. Others found a sense of community in fraternal, benevolent, or organizations like the Y. Fraternal organizations, like the Order of Brith Abraham or Free Sons of Israel, combined Jewish oriented symbols with American ones. They provided solidarity, fellowship, and served as agents of Americanization that filled the needs of Jewish male immigrants. Women created their own organizations to find the same sense of solidarity and community. These groups did not exist in Europe and sprang up in America to fill the needs of an immigrant generation just as the Y movement filled the needs of the children and grandchildren of immigrants looking for recreation, education, athletics, and community in a Jewish and American setting. The Y and Jewish Community Center mixed religious and secular events, reinforcing a sense of Jewishness. <br /><br />Jews wanted to identify as Americans. They saw service in World War I and II and respected. American leaders as evidence of their identification as Americans. From Kaddish for President Lincoln to the murder of President Kennedy, Troy’s Jews demonstrated their respect for American political leadership. They welcomed the respect that local political leaders, Protestant and Irish Catholics, displayed to the Jewish community by attending the major events in the life of the Jewish community, whether in the dedication of Berith Sholom or support for Jewish Relief Day in 1916. Jews wanted recognition as Americans, not as the “other.” Finally, as Jews made their way from peddlers to professionals, they repeatedly showed their support for Jews abroad, whether in 1905, 1919, 1929, 1938, or 1973.<br /><br /><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"><b style="font-family: -webkit-standard; text-align: justify;">About the author: Harvey Strum is a history and political science professor at Russell Sage College in Troy and Albany. His most recent publications include: <i>America’s Mission of Mercy to Ireland, 1880, </i>New York History, 2018; <i>Schenectady’s Jews, Zionism,</i> New York History Review, 2019, 2020.</b></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><b>ENDNOTES</b><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <sup>1</sup> <i>New Jewish Chronicle, </i>(Schenectady, N.Y.), 19 February 1919. This newspaper underwent </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">several name changes in its brief history during the World War I period. The paper was the </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">newspaper of the Capital Region Jewish community. Rabbi Jasin, of Reform Gates of Heaven, in </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Schenectady, edited the paper. He was a committed Zionist, unlike the Reform leadership in </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Albany.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">2</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> B.G. Rudolph, <i>From Minyan to Community: A History of the Jews of Syracuse </i>(Syracuse: </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Syracuse University Press, 1970); Harvey Strum, “Schenectady’s Jewish Immigrants,” </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">New York </i><i style="font-size: 11pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">History Review </span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">11 (2017): 124-55; S. Joshua Kohn, <i>The Jewish Community of Utica </i>(New York: </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">American Jewish Historical Society, 1959); Stuart Rosenberg, </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Jewish Community of Rochester </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">(New York: Columbia University Press, 1954); Eva Goldin, </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">The Jewish Community of </i><i style="font-size: 11pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Poughkeepsie, New York </span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">(Poughkeepsie: Marr Printing, 1982); Selig Adler and Thomas </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Connolly, </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">From Ararat to Suburbia: The History of the Jewish Community of Buffalo </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">(Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1960); Rabbi Naphtali Rubinger, </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Albany </i><i style="font-size: 11pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Jewry of the Nineteenth Century </span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">(D.H.L., Yeshiva University, 1970). Published by University </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Microfilms, 1971; Lance Sussman, </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Beyond the Catskills: Jewish Life in Binghamton, New York, </i><i style="font-size: 11pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">1870-1970 (</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Binghamton: SUNY Binghamton, 1989); Herbert Engel, <i>Shtetl in the </i></span><i style="font-size: 11pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Adirondacks: The Story of Gloversville and Its Jews </span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">(Fleischmanns, N.Y.: Purple Mountain </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Press, 1991). For two general studies of Jewish life in small towns and medium-sized cities: Lee </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Weissbach, </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Jewish Life in Small-Town America</i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005); Ewa </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Morawska, </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Insecure Prosperity: Small-town Jews in Industrial America, 1890-1940 </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">(Princeton: </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Princeton University Press, 1996).</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">3 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Hoosick Falls Historical Society has photos of several Jewish-owned businesses that existed in </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">the town---for example, Sol Levine’s Sol’s Friendly Service, a gas station, and M. Lurie and </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Company Department Store. Their files contain a few pages of the minutes of the synagogue for </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">the 1890s. Copies of the full minutes are available on a subscription Jewish genealogical site. For </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">a summary of the minutes, Rabbi Abraham Laber, “A viable village synagogue,” </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Jewish World, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">August 9, 2007, 25. The “Hebrew Synagogue” is mentioned in the local business directories </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">from 1904-1931. Members of the Miller family donated their house to the Hoosick Falls </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Historical Society. Millers Market was the major supermarket in the town for decades. For the </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">mass meeting for Jewish relief, Troy </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Times, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">1</span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">November 1919.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">4</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> For Cohoes, see, for example, <i>Tri-City Jewish Chronicle, </i>March 1918, 128. Also, Henry </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Rickman, city editor, </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Cohoes Republican, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">“Jewry in Cohoes,” </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Tri-City Jewish Chronicle, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">December 1917, 29. For fund raising, Troy </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Times, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">22 October 1919. For the growth, decline, and </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">fall of many small Jewish communities, Lee Weissbach, </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Jewish Life in Small-Town America, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">296-313. Weissbach does not mention Cohoes, Hoosick Falls, or Rensselaer County.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">5 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Jewish Agricultural Society, <i>Jews in American Agriculture </i>(New York: Jewish Agricultural </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Society, 1954), 16; Nassau Synagogue and Jewish Community Center, </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Sharing the Light </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">(Nassau: Nassau Synagogue and Jewish Community Center, 2016), 6, 9-11. The Morris </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Schwartz Papers, New York State Library, Albany, contain the records of a cooperative fire </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">insurance company of Jewish farmers and mentions their credit union. The rye bread quote is </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">taken from Christopher Ringwald’s interview with Dr. Max Panitch in Christopher Ringwald, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Harvey Strum, and Jim Wilson, </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Jewish Farming Communities of Northeastern New York </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">(Albany: Sage Colleges Rathbone Gallery, 1998), 26. This was a catalogue of an exhibit on Jewish</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> farmers of Rensselaer County, 23 February to 22 March 1998, at the Rathbone </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Gallery on the Albany campus of the Sage Colleges. </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">6 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Larry Fader, <i>Welcome to the Jewish Immigrant Farmers of Rensselaer County </i>(Nassau: </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Rensselaer County Farmers’ Reunion, 2016). Descendants of the Jewish farmers shared stories </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">of times on the farms and family histories. For the Catskills, Abraham Lavender and Clarence </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Steinberg, </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Jewish Farmers of the Catskills </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">(Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">1995), 218-19. The quote about Nassau synagogue is taken from Ringwald’s interview with Dr. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Max Panitch cited above. </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">7</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> For Glens Falls, see Congregation Shaaray Tefila Collection at Crandall Public Library, Glens </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Falls, New York. Also: Congregation Beth El Collection, 1925-1935, Leo Baeck Institute </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Archives, New York. Online, see the LBI Digital Collections.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">8</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Troy <i>Daily Whig, </i>1 October 1859.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">9</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> S. Nathan, “The Troy Jewish Community.” <i>The Tri-City Jewish Chronicle, </i>December 1917, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">25; L. Loe, “Troy,” </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">The Jewish Encyclopedia </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">(New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1905) Vol. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">12:238.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">10</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <i>Occident, </i>Vol. 9. No. 7, (October 1851), 383. Also, see Lance Sussman, <i>Beyond the </i></span><i style="font-size: 11pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Catskills: Life in Binghamton, New York, 1850-1975 </span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">(Binghamton: Studio Art Gallery, SUNY </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Binghamton, 17-26 May 1989), 9. This was an exhibition catalogue. In addition, Samuel </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Rezneck, </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">A Century of Temple Berith Sholom </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">(Cohoes: Richman Press, 1966), 5. This was a </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">history published by the synagogue to commemorate its anniversary. </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">11</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Gerald Sorin, <i>A Time for Building: The Third Migration, 1880-1920 </i>(Baltimore and London: </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), 5; For Syracuse, B.G. Rudolph, </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">From A Minyan To A </i><i style="font-size: 11pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Community, </span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">2; Rochester, Stuart Rosenberg, <i>The Jewish Community in Rochester, </i>3-13; </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Poughkeepsie, Eva Goldin, </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">The Jewish Community, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">3-11. Initial Jewish settlers in Utica a mix of </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">immigrants from Germany and Poland, S. Joshua Kohn, </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">The Jewish Community of Utica, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">9-15. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Jewish arrivals in Buffalo came from Germany, Selig Adler, </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">From Ararat to Suburbia, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">12-38. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">For Albany, Rabbi Rubinger, </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Albany Jewry, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">180-200 and Louis Silver, “The Jews of Albany, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">N.Y.,” </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">YIVO Annual of Jewish Social Science </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">(1954):216-219. For Kingston and Newburgh, see </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">the online descriptions of the synagogues and brief historical accounts. </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">12</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Hasia Diner, <i>A Time for Gathering, The Second Migration, 1820-1880 </i>(Baltimore and </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), 11-12.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">13</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Gerald Sorin,<i> A Time for Building, </i>14. Proste yidn in Yiddish meant the poor common </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">people, the average Jews in Eastern Europe immigrating to America, page 18. </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">14</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Samuel Rezneck, <i>Temple Berith Sholom, </i>4. For Syracuse and Albany, Hasia Diner, <i>A Time </i></span><i style="font-size: 11pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">for Gathering, </span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">68. The exception to all Jews speaking Yiddish were 150,000 Jews who </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">emigrated from the Ottoman Empire or Greece who spoke a Spanish based language with </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Hebrew letters known as </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">ladino</i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">. A small number from Greece spoke a separate Greek-Hebrew </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">mix, Romaniote.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">15</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Isaac M. Wise, <i>Reminiscences </i>(Cincinnati: Leo Wise and Co., 1901. 1<sup>st</sup> edition; 2<sup>nd</sup> edition, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">New York: Central Synagogue, 1945), 47.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">16</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> “Subscriptions for Synagogue, March 1870,” Berith Sholom, Troy, New York, American </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Jewish Archives, Cincinnati, Ohio. (AJA). The AJA has a small collection of material related to </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Berith Sholom, but the American Jewish Historical Society, in New York City, appears not to </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">have any records of congregations in Troy.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">17 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Walter Shapiro, <i>Hustling Hitler </i>(New York: Penguin Random House, 2016), 26-27.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">18</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Allan Cohen and Gabe Izraelevitz, “The Jewish Immigration into 19<sup>th</sup> Century Troy,” student </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">paper, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 1981, Appendix A. </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">19</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Walter Shapiro, <i>Hustling Hitler, </i>24.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">20 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Hasia Diner, <i>Time for Gathering, </i>119. Also, see Charles Reznikoff, translator, I.J. Benjamin, </span><i style="font-size: 11pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Three Years in America, 1859-1862 </span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">(Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">1956), Vol. I 284. Benjamin offers a description of the Jewish community in Buffalo, Rochester, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Syracuse, and Albany in 1860 but fails to mention Schenectady or Troy. </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">21 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Troy <i>Daily Whig, </i>1 October 1864. For some details of the Hebrew Bible Case, Samuel </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Rezneck, </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Berith Sholom, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">6.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">22</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Ibid, 5, citing an 1864 issue of the <i>Whig. </i>For how stereotypes about Jews can lead to strange </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Christian behavior toward Jews, see the most recent work on the ritual murder case in Massena, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">New York in 1928, Edward Berenson, </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">The Accusation: Blood Libel in an American Town </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">(New </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">York: W.W. Norton, 2019). A few miles north of Troy in 1877 in Saratoga Springs, the Grand </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Hotel would bar Joseph Seligman, a prominent Jewish banker and friend of former President </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Grant, publicizing the discrimination against Jews in resorts, hotels, and restaurants that became </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">popular in the 1860s and 1870s and would continue for generations. Like</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> the Mohawk Club in Schenectady or the Fort Orange Club in Albany, clubs in the Capital District followed the Grand </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Hotel model and barred Jews until the 1960s. Colleges would start limiting Jewish</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">admissions in the 1920s, with some colleges not removing restrictions until the 1970s. </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">23 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Hasia Diner, <i>A Time for Gathering, </i>191-200; Gerald Sorin, <i>A Time for Building, </i>51-55,164-</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">68; Howard Sachar, </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">A History of the Jews in America </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">(New York: Vintage Books, 1992), 274-</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">334; Naomi Cohen, “Anti-Semitism in the Gilded Age: The Jewish View,” </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Jewish Social Studies </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">41 (Summer/Fall 1979): 187-220.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">24 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Hasia Diner, <i>A Time for Gathering, </i>198; Interview of Rabbi Avraham Laber with Marty </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Silverman, in 2000, when Silverman, a philanthropist, was 88, in Rabbi Avraham Laber, </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">“Jewish Life in Troy,” in Jim Richard Wilson, edited <i>An American Shtetl: Jewish History and </i></span><i style="font-size: 11pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Community in Troy, NY </span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">(Albany: Rathbone Gallery of Sage Colleges, 2001), 26.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">25 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Walter Shapiro, <i>Hustling Hitler, </i>27. Hyman was Walter Shapiro’s great grandfather. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">26</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Ibid, 27-28,<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">27</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Ibid, 27.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">28</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Hasia Diner, <i>A Time for Gathering, </i>193.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">29</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Troy <i>Daily Whig, </i>6 June 1864; Troy <i>Daily Times, </i>6 June 1864.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">30</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Cited in Samuel Rezneck, <i>Berith Sholom, </i>7.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">31</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Isabella Hess, <i>1870-1935 Sixty-Fifth Anniversary 5630-5695 </i>(Troy: Berith Sholom, 1935) 3. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Used copies from AJA and in the Leonard Lewis Rosenthal Collection, Rensselaer County </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Historical Society (RCHS). Copy available at New York State Library. For the appeal, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">“Subscriptions for the Synagogue, March 1870,” Berith Sholom, AJA. Gilbert’s contribution is </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">listed. A copy of the incorporation papers in 1866 of Baris Sholem (Berith Sholom), folder 1, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Rosenthal Collection, RCHS. Original at Rensselaer County Clerk’s Office, Troy, N.Y.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">32</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Troy <i>Daily Whig, </i>12 June 1870. Also, 7, 11 June 1870. Troy <i>Press, </i>12 June 1870. Also, 11 , </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">13 June 1870.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">33</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Constitution and By Laws of the Congregation Berith Sholom and By-Laws of the Chevra </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Kadisha, 20 November 1870. Temple Berith Sholom, AJA.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">34</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> For the dedication, Troy <i>Press, </i>23 September 1870; Troy <i>Daily Whig, </i>23, 30 September </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">1870. Nathaniel Sylvester, </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">History of Rensselaer County, New York </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">(Philadelphia: Everts, 1880), </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">249.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">35</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Troy <i>Press, </i>5 August 1870.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">36</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Ibid; Incorporation Papers, Bikur Cholim, 24 October 1870, copy in folder 1, Rosenthal </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Collection, RCHS. Also, see in the same folder, Golden Anniversary Dinner, Beth Israel Bikur </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Cholim Souvenir Program, Troy, 31 December 1950, 1, 3. Copies of synagogues' incorporation papers </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">can be found at Rensselaer County Clerk, Troy, New York. </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">37</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Incorporation Papers, Sharah Tephilah. 15 November 1875, folder 8, Rosenthal Collection, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">RCHS; Troy </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Press, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">10 October 1887; Troy </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Daily Whig, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">10 October 1887. Also, see a letter of </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">recommendation from Sharah Tephilah for Yaakov Gershon Mendelsohn, the assistant rabbi, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">cantor, mohel, and butcher for the congregation, 1899, in the Archives of Yeshiva University, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">New York City. Also, for some items and notes by Leonard Rosenthal about Sharah Tephilah, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">see Folder 2, Rosenthal Collection, RCHS.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">38</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Rabbi Laber, “Jewish Life,” <i>An American Shtetl, </i>25; As an example of a Jewish </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">wedding coverage, see Troy </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Daily Whig, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">18 November 1870. Amelia Gross, daughter of Congress Street </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">merchant Louis Gross, married a River Street fur dealer, Samuel Monni. As another example, see </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Troy </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Times, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">25 January 1909 for the Gertrude Karp-Morris Kossoff wedding. </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">39</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Rabbi Laber, “Jewish Life,” <i>An American Shtetl, </i>25. Rabbi Laber interviewed Julius Platt.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">40 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Troy <i>Times, </i>25 October 1909; Troy <i>Record, </i>25 October 1909; Troy<i> Press, </i>25 October 1909; <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Utica <i>Saturday Globe, </i>18 September 1909, 12 has an article on Beth Israel. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">41 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Troy <i>Times, </i>26 September 1910; Troy <i>Record, </i>27 September 1910.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">42 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Troy <i>Times, </i>29 December 1920, 13 December 1934; Troy <i>Record, </i>4 January 1932, 30 August </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">1932; Troy </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Observer Budget, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">23 January 1934; For the merger, see Troy </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Times Record, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">28 </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">August 1961. Rabbi Joel Geffen’s Rabbinical Papers, Special Collections, the Library of the </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Jewish Theological Seminary, New York City. See Box 35 and Folders 1-10 in Box 36 that </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">cover Geffen’s tenure at Beth El from 1929-1944. For a copy of the consolidation agreement </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">between the two synagogues in 1961, Folder 3, Rosenthal Collection, RCHS.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">43</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Ewa Morawska, <i>Insecure Prosperity, </i>135.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">44 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">For a general overview of secular Jewish organizations, see Hasia Diner, <i>A Time for </i></span><i style="font-size: 11pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Gathering, </span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">86-113. Also, each history of a Jewish community in New York goes into the </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">importance of these community organizations. For example, Eva Goldin, </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">The Jewish Community </i><i style="font-size: 11pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">of Poughkeepsie, </span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">59-87; Stuart Rosenberg, <i>The Jewish Community of Rochester, </i>71-132; Selig </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Adler, </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">From Ararat to Suburbia, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">379-89, 396-98. (Buffalo); B.G. Rudolph, </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">From a Minyan</i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">to a </i><i style="font-size: 11pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Community, </span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">127-154 (Syracuse), and S. Joshua Kohn, <i>The Jewish Community of Utica, </i>40-104.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">45 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Troy<i> Daily Whig, </i>14 November 1867. Fast forward to the 1940s, Bnai Brith, Troy Lodge, 10, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">October 1943 includes a short history, Folder 11, Rosenthal Collection, RCHS.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">46 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Hasia Diner, <i>A Time for Gathering, </i>109; Also, see Arthur James Weise, <i>History of the City of </i></span><i style="font-size: 11pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Troy, </span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">(Troy: Edward Green, 1876), 344, 348. Many Polish Jews belonged to the Free Sons of </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Israel, including the author of this article's author. </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">47 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">L. Loe, <i>Jewish Encyclopedia, </i>12: 267. For a Ladies’ Hebrew Benevolent Society meeting </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">announcement, Folder 11, Also, printed invitation to a Membership Tea for Senior Hadassah of </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Troy, Rosenthal Collection, RCHS.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">48 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Hasia Diner, <i>A Time for Gathering, </i>96-97.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">49 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Rutherford Hayner, <i>Troy, and Rensselaer County New York: A History </i>(Troy, 1925). Vol II, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">437. For details on the history of the Troy Y: “The Troy YMHA,” </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Tri-City Jewish Chronicle, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">March 1918, 117; YMHA Sliver Anniversary, 13-20 November 1938 includes by Samuel </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Rosenthal, “Twenty-five Years of Progress,” a history of the Y. Certificate of Incorporation of </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">the Young Men’s Hebrew Association of Troy, N.Y., 12 November 1913; Constitution of the </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Young Men’s and Young Women’s Hebrew Association of Troy, N.Y.; Souvenir Journal of the </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">22</span><sup style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">nd</sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Annual Convention of the New York State Federation of YM and YWHA’s and Jewish </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Community Centers, 20-21 November 1937; Handwritten Journal of YMHA Juniors of Morris </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Rosenthal, Secretary, 3 December 1917-20 February 1918. Copies of the Y records, Jewish </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Historical Society of Northeastern New York, located in the Jewish Federation offices, Albany, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">N.Y. Also, Benjamin Rabinowitz, </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Young Men’s Hebrew Associations, 1854-1913 </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">(New </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">York: National Jewish Welfare Board, 1948), 23-24; Special Passover Services of the YM and </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">YWHA, 29 March 1918 at Beth Israel, Folder 1, Rosenthal Collection, RCHS; Joseph Hormats, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">“The Y.M.H.A. Movement,” </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Tri-City Jewish Chronicle, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">March 1918, 113. Hormats, President of </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">the Troy Y led the effort to organize it and in 1918 also served as President of New York State </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Federation of YMHAs. President Roosevelt congratulated the Y on its 25</span><sup style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">th</sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> anniversary, see </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Irving Myers to Franklin Roosevelt, 12 October 1938 and President Roosevelt to Irving Myers, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">15 October 1938, 5581, Roosevelt Papers, FDR Presidential Archives, and Library, Hyde Park, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">N.Y.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">50</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Hasia Diner, <i>A Time for Gathering, </i>107.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">51 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Troy <i>Times, </i>24 February 1918, Vol 41, Scrapbook. Microfilm, Local History Room, Troy </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Public Library. </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">52</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Troy <i>Record, </i>18 October 1920, Vol. 52, Scrapbook, Troy Public Library. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">53 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Howard Sachar, <i>Jews in America, </i>157.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">54 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Troy <i>Record, </i>13 February 1918, Vol. 41 Scrapbook, Troy Public Library. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">55 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Howard Sachar, <i>Jews in America, </i>705. For the JCC, also see, Troy <i>Times-Record, </i>5 </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">December 1932, Vol. 91, Scrapbook, 183, Troy Public Library; Troy </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Times Record, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">27 </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">November 1935.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">56 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Kaddish is the Jewish prayer for the dead usually said at the end of each service for </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Congregation’s members who recently died or on the anniversaries of their death. </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">57 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Troy <i>Times, </i>25 October 1909;<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">58 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Citizens of Troy, <i>Tribute of Respect by the Citizens of Troy to the Memory of Abraham </i></span><i style="font-size: 11pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Lincoln </span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">(Albany: J. Munsell, 1865), 98-99, 157-160. The Manuscript Division of the New York </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">State Library, Albany, N.Y. holds a copy. </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">59 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Ibid, 237-38, 330. Also, very brief mentions in Troy <i>Daily Times, </i>20, 24 April 1865.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">60 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Troy <i>Press, </i>27 September 1881.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">61</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Troy <i>Daily Times, </i>25 July 1885.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">62</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Troy <i>Press, </i>20 September 1901; Troy <i>Daily</i> <i>Times, </i>20 September 1901<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">63</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Troy <i>Press, </i>20 September 1901.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">64 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Troy <i>Record, </i>10 August 1923; Troy <i>Times, </i>10 August 1923. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">65</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Troy <i>Times-Record, </i>13 April 1945.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">66</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Troy <i>Record, </i>25 November 1963.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">67</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <i>Tri-City Jewish Chronicle, </i>November 1918. The roll of honor is in December 1917 issue but </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">is a partial listing since it does not include men enlisted or drafted in 1918.The figure for the </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Jewish men in service, Troy </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Times, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">23 February 1920. For the impact of World War I on the </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Jews of the Capital District, Harvey Strum, “To Aid Their Unfortunate Coreligionists: Impact of </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">World War I on the Jewish Community of Albany,” </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Hudson River Valley Review, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Spring 2016, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">53-75.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">68</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <i>Tri-City Jewish Chronicle, </i>December 1918. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">69 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Ibid, “Troy Y.M.H.A News,” August 1919, 210.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">70 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Ibid, “No Compromise with Anti-Semitism,” March 1918, 120.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">71 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Ibid, “Troy Tid-Bits,” June 1918.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">72 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Ibid, “A Chronicle of the Capital District,” November 1918, 15, on liberty loans, Hormats, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">February 1918, and YWHA, March 1918, 118.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">73 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Troy <i>Times, </i>26 October 1920.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">74</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Ibid, 23 February 1920, 27 August 1919; 18 February, 10 May 1920; 9 July 1935, 16 </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">November 1936.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">75</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Troy <i>Times Record, </i>14 June 1936.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">76 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Ibid, 12 January 1936.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">77</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Ibid<i>, </i>17 April 1943, 10 September 1942; 20 February 1943. For a partial list of Troy Jewish </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">boys in uniform, 21 April 1943. For Camp Rucker, see 9 March 1943 and 3 March 1944. For </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">more details on the Jewish Welfare Board activities, 28 September 1943.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">78 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Ibid, 11 May 1945.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">79 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Ibid, 21 May 1948.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">80</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Salo and Jeanette Baron, “Palestinian Messengers in America, 1840-1879: A Record of Four </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Journeys,” </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Jewish Social Studies, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Vol. 5, No.2 (April 1943) and 3, 151-52, 160.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">81 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Herbert Parzen, “The Federation of American Zionists, (1897-1914),” 247 in Isadore Meyer, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">ed., </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Early History of Zionism in America </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">(New York: Arno Press, 1977). Full article, 245-74. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Also, for the early history of Zionism in Troy, “The Zionist Movement,” in Troy </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Times, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">28 May </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">1918.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">82 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Troy <i>Times, </i>18 July 1904.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">83</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Ibid, 20 November 1905; Troy <i>Daily Press, </i>18, 24 November 1905 For the Berith Sholom </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">meeting, Troy </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Times, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">25 November 1905; For the amount raised in Troy, “$1,111,183 For </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Jews’ Relief,” New York </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Times, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">10 December 1905, 8.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">84 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Troy <i>Times, </i>10 June 1903. The editorial was in response to the Kishinev pogrom.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">85</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Troy Jewish Relief Committee, 22 January 1916 in Abraham Karp, <i>The UJA in the shaping of </i></span><i style="font-size: 11pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">the American Jewish Community to Give Life </span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">(New York: Schocken Books, 1980), 53; Also, see </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">the appeal letter in Troy </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Times, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">25 January 1916. For contributors, </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Times, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">22,23,24,25,29 </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">January 1916; Troy </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Record, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">22, 25, 27, and 28 January 1916.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">86</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> For Jewish relief, see <i>Tri-City Jewish Chronicle, </i>1918-1920; Troy <i>Times </i>8 March, 30 April, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">14 September,</span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">10,</span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">21,</span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">22,25, 28 October 1919. For Zionism, </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Tri-City Jewish Chronicle, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">1918-</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">1920; Quote, Troy </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Times, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">3 June 1920. Also, see 28 May 1918, 18 January, 26, 29 February </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">1919, 8 July 1920.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">87</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <i>Tri-City Jewish Chronicle, </i>June 1919, 157.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">88</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Ibid, November, December 1919, January 1920. For a copy of the flyer for the “Big Mass </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Meeting to Protest against the Massacres and Pogroms of Jews in Ukraina and Eastern Europe” </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">in Schenectady, Folder 18, Rosenthal Collection, RCHS; United Jewish Community of </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Schenectady to Secretary of State Robert Lansing and President Woodrow Wilson, 16 May 1919 </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">for an earlier protest similar to the Tory protest, in Wilson Papers, Library of Congress.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">89</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Troy <i>Times, </i>29 August, 4 September 1929; Troy <i>Record, </i>29, 30 August, 4 September 1929.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">90</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Troy <i>Times Record, </i>11 October 1938.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">91</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Troy <i>Northern Budget, </i>13 November 1938.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">92</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Ibid, 27 November 1938. Also, see the editorial, 20 November 1938.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">93</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Troy <i>Times Record, </i>18 November 1938. Also, see the anti-Nazi editorials of 16 and 23 <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">November 1938 that denounce the persecution of German Jews. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">94</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Ibid, on Wise 11 November 1938.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">95</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Ibid, 19 November 1938.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">96 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Ibid, 28 November 1938 for Cohoes; For Troy, 22, 26, 28 November 1938. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">For the national movement against German anti-Semitism, Troy </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Northern Budget, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">13, 17 </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">November 1938; Troy </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Times Record, </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">17,</span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">22 November 1938.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">97</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Troy <i>Northern Budget, </i>20 November 1938 for American Labor Party; Troy <i>Times Record </i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">23 November 1938 for the meeting of students. For the clergy, 14 November 1938. I contacted </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">the American Baptist Historical Society, Presbyterian Historical Society, and the Methodist </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Historical Society, but none contained records of the Troy Protestant ministers who spoke out </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">against German anti-Semitism.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">98</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> “The Trojan Answer to Persecution,” 22-29 January 1940, Folder 10, Rosenthal Collection, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">RCHS.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">99</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Troy <i>Times Record, </i>11 August 1942.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">100</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Ibid, 3 December 1942.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">101</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Ibid, 3 April 1943.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">102</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Ibid, 27 November 1943.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">103</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Ibid, 6 November 1944; 1 October 1945.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">104</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Ibid, 1 October 1945.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">105</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Ibid, 17 May 1948. The information on actions taken from 1945-48 comes from tapes of </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">meetings of the Jewish Historical Society of Northeastern New York. Jewish residents of </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Albany, Schenectady, Troy, Amsterdam, Gloversville, and Cohoes spoke about their actions </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">or that of relatives from 1945-48 in aid of Israel's creation. These activities remained </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">clandestine. I loaned the tapes from Anita Merims, Treasurer of the organization. Some of the </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">comments on a tape from the April 1998 meeting. I had discussions about the weapons with two </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">individuals on the tape in 2003 and 2005.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">106</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Troy <i>Times Record, </i>9 June 1967.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">107</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Ibid, 9. 10, 15, 1973. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 8pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p></div>DLJhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14674534926004739081noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3330136066649493860.post-962830861618665172020-12-06T12:12:00.002-08:002020-12-06T12:12:28.191-08:00 Elmira’s Fugitive Slave Case of “Sam," 1858<b>by Richard White </b><div><b>Copyright © 2020 all rights reserved by the author</b><br /><br /> <br /><br /> <br /><br /></div><blockquote style="border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><div><div style="text-align: center;">And yet vile as it was, the fugitive slave law was…a gift </div></div><div><div style="text-align: center;">to the anti-slavery activists…because wherever it was </div></div><div><div style="text-align: center;">enforced, it allowed them to show off human beings </div></div><div><div style="text-align: center;">being dragged back to the hell whence they came. </div></div></blockquote><div><br /><br />This was Professor Andrew Delbanco’s contention on one of the impacts in the North of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 in <i>The War Before The War: Fugitive Slaves and the Struggle for America’s Soul From the Revolution to the Civil War</i> (2018). His depiction of a rendition of captured runaway slaves “being dragged” is especially poignant. Yet in 1858, there was an unusual, and surprising, case in Elmira that was dramatically different from the city’s Underground Railroad experience of aiding emancipated men and women in the antebellum era. It dealt with the decisions made by a former slave identified only by his first name in the press as he sought, in a sense, to regain his soul. <br /><br /> “Sam” fled enslavement in Cecil County, Maryland, in August 1858, and traveled on the Underground Railroad to Canada. There are no references that recall his journey’s stopovers, nor his residence in Canada where he lived until December when he experienced intense personal turmoil which was described in news dispatches. For example, on December 20, The Elmira <i>Advertiser</i> described “Sam’s” unexpected predicament—“he was sick and could not work…and he wanted to go see his wife and children.“ <br /><br /><i> The Pioneer and Democrat</i> from Olympia in the Washington Territory editorialized on February 11, 1859, that his troubles prevented him from enjoying “the sweets of freedom.” Finally, “Sam” understood how to resolve his predicament—he would contact his former enslaver to make a request. He had traveled secretly to the North, but now he asked in a letter to his former “Owner” if he could return to the place he left in Maryland which was accepted. <br /><br /> Research does not indicate where “Sam” met two men including his former “Master,” Mr. Mills, to escort him, but the arrival of the three men by train in Elmira caused an uproar by the city’s black residents. The Rochester <i>American</i> on the 22nd clearly captured the opening drama, declaring that “there was fearful excitement at Elmira… occasioned by the discovery that two Southerners had arrived on the Canandaigua train with a fugitive in their keeping, who was hurried to the Brainard House and locked up in a room. A large and excited crowd many of whom were armed with knives and pistols at once filled and surrounded the house, but they were told that the fugitive was going to be taken back at his own request." The city’s black population was organizing its first Vigilance Committee which like the others in the State tried to rescue fugitive slaves from slave catchers. Vigilance representatives were allowed to meet with “Sam” to dissuade him but his decision was firm. This event quieted the crowd, and many left the scene so that there was a relatively calm atmosphere. The day’s closing drama began to emerge when residents heard that the two Southerners would depart with “Sam” by train in the evening. Soon a larger assemblage of whites and blacks waited at the depot for “Sam” in order to prevent ”Sam’s” departure. The situation’s volatility intensified, and The American suggested that “a fearful riot” was about to erupt. In fact, a letter from an unnamed writer to the New York<i> Herald</i>—and reprinted in the New Orleans Daily Crescent on January 4, 1859 provides first-hand details about an emerging crisis, noting that “at one time the excitement ran so high that it was deemed necessary to call upon the military, who held themselves in readiness in case their services were wanted.” What happened next prompted the <i>Daily Crescent</i> to gladly declare “hurrah for our Northern brethren.” <br /><br /> In Elmira, word spread that “Sam” would depart for Baltimore at 6:40 by way of the Williamsport, Pennsylvania, train but this belief was a diversion. “Sam” had been spirited out-of-town by the time a riotous crowd of whites and blacks assembled at the depot. An arrangement for the train to stop a few miles below town had been made to pick up “Sam” and the two Southerners. In the pursuit of freedom, “Sam” became lost. He changed the paradigm in order to regain his soul. The Gazette concluded that “the poor old negro is [now] on the ‘old plantation,’ in the midst of his family and friends. We think he will not soon try his luck in Canada again.” One year after the Dred Scott decision, and one year before John Brown’s raid, the issue of race-based bondage spurred an uproar in Elmira. <br /><br /><br /><br /><b>About the author: Richard White's articles have appeared in Civil War History, The Journal of Negro History, and other publications.</b><br /></div>DLJhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14674534926004739081noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3330136066649493860.post-34562340218293192182020-10-01T12:32:00.006-07:002020-10-01T14:18:17.570-07:00 On the Suffrage Trail: Her-Story in Lily Dale<b>by <a href="mailto:jmpmansfield@gmail.com" target="_blank">Joanne</a></b><span style="caret-color: rgb(14, 16, 26); color: #0e101a;"><a href="mailto:jmpmansfield@gmail.com" target="_blank"> <b>Polizzi Mansfield</b></a></span><b><br />Copyright © 2020, All rights reserved by the author.</b><div><b><br /></b><p><span style="color: #0e101a;">Spiritualist activities were evident in Western New York and Chautauqua County as early as 1844 when </span><span style="color: #0e101a;">Jeremiah Carter experienced mesmerism, and in 1848, when the Fox sisters of Hydesville, NY, heard and interpreted rappings. By 1855 “The Religious Society of Freethinkers of the Village of Laona” was organized. The society held meetings in the area. </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The ideals of free speech, free thought, free investigation were converging to introduce the seeds of the women’s movement in Western New York.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The newspapers of the day, </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The Banner of Light, Chautauqua Farmer, The Sunflower, Dunkirk Observer, </em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">and some Buffalo papers</span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">reported the happening in Lily Dale</span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">. </em></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></em></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">1877 - Jerimiah Carter of Laona - heard a voice saying, “Go to Alden’s and arrange for a camp meeting.” He walked six miles to Cassadaga and suggested to landowner Willard Alden that a Spiritualist Camp Meeting be held in his grove. A six-day camp meeting was held in Alden Grove that September.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">1879 - A group of stockholders formed The Cassadaga Lake Free Association, and it was decided to purchase land along the east side of the upper lake in Cassadaga. The place was named the Cassadaga Lake Camp Meeting Grounds. The first tree was felled. The surveying and laying out of the grounds were done, and renting cottages was decided upon. The preparations were in place for the World’s Largest Center for Spiritualism at Lily Dale.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">1880 - The </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Chautauqua Farmer</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> reported the Spiritualists dedicated their grounds at Cassadaga Lake to Free Speech, Free Thought, and Free Investigation. The crowd was 1,200, and the speaker was Mrs. Elizabeth Lowe Watson. The women were organizing. (</span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Chautauqua Farmer</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">: June 16, 1880)</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">1883 - The famed Auditorium of Lily Dale was proposed. It was fifty by fifty-foot, enclosed on three sides, and supported by pillars with curtains to be let down during inclement weather. A sixteen by a forty-eight-foot platform to the rear was the stage. The Auditorium was completed in time for the camp meeting and became the centerpiece for the suffrage orators. </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">(Banner of Light</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">: September 2, 1882)</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">By 1888 improvements were in rapid progress, with the expansion of lands and erection of new cottages. Spiritualist speakers drew large and attentive audiences at the yearly camps. The </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Banner of Light</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> reports the Library Hall was opened and dedicated, with three hundred volumes, a reading room, séance rooms, and a lecture hall. The Auditorium is the gem of Cassadaga. “It shelters an audience of fifteen hundred. When the canvas wings are lowered the auditorium becomes a theater.”</span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> (</span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Banner of Light</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">: August 28, 1888)</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">In September of 1888, the Cassadaga Lake Branch of the “Universal Cooperative Temperance Union” was organized with twenty-five members. In 1887 the first Political Equality Club was founded in Jamestown, and the first convention of Political Equality ever held in New York State convened at the Opera House in Jamestown. Mrs. Marion Skidmore organized a chapter of the Political Equality Club in Lily Dale. On July 4, 1889, she arranged for a celebration of the Western New York Political Equality Club at Lily Dale and Invited all the clubs in the county to be present. The camp covered an area of forty acres and one hundred and eight cottages on the grounds. (</span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Banner of Light</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">: September 22, 1888; June 22, 1889)</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">In 1889, there is an amphitheater, a children’s Lyceum, the new Library building, a newsstand, a school district granted for the near future, a US post office, and the Hotel Grand. A great many phases of mediumship are represented on the grounds-clairvoyance, slate-writing, healing, and test with many mediums of the day coming to Lily Dale. (</span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Banner of Light</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">: August 3, 1889)</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">1891 - Saturday, August 25 is Woman’s Day at Chautauqua, and all county clubs are to represent. This is the first time that Chautauqua has recognized the suffrage movement. </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The Banner of</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Light </em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">reported in their August 29 edition the Woman’s Suffrage Day events held August 15. The day was declared Glorious “because successful in representation in numbers, and in the graphic promulgation of one of the main auxiliaries of Spiritual Truth, Freedom and Progress - the equal suffrage and recognition of women on all questions and in all places where her wise intuitions may lead her." The spirit of the occasion was </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Political Equality and Equal Rights to All</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">! A</span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">large delegation of Political Equality Clubs and their sympathizers came, twenty-three clubs in all, and it was estimated that 5,000 to 6,000 people were present. The speakers were Rev. Anna Shaw, Susan B. Anthony and Miss Hattie O. Peate. (</span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Banner of Light</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">: August 29. 1891)</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">1892 - Mrs. Isabella Beecher Hooker was on the grounds, a guest of Mrs. Marion Skidmore, in preparation for the annual Woman’s Day Program August 25. Mrs. Hooker presided, and Susan B. Anthony and The Rev. Anna Shaw spoke. (</span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The Buffalo Express</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">: August 24, 1892; </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Banner of Light</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">: August 20, 1892)</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">1893 </span>- <span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Woman’s Day was August 17, as reported in the </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Banner of Light</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">: Twenty-five hundred tickets were sold at the gate, and the Auditorium was packed to capacity for this Woman’s Day. Mrs. Elnora M. Babcock, President of the Chautauqua County Political Equality Club, took the chair and stated that nowhere in the county was suffrage women warmly received as at Lily Dale. Rev. Anna Shaw was the speaker of the afternoon. (</span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Banner of Light</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">: August 26, 1893)</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">1894 - August 15 was “Temperance Day.” The subject was discussed in Conference, and all around the camp, all shades of opinion and theory being advanced. Woman’s Day was celebrated August 22. Two thousand people arrived on the regular trains, and presumably another thousand upon the excursion trains. The chairman opened the session with an address of welcome to the suffragists who had come to Cassadaga for their annual celebration. Chairman Barrett said the suffrage movement was born the same year and simultaneously with the Rochester knockings, the beginning of Modern Spiritualism and that Spiritualism embraced every movement that stood for liberty and equal rights. Miss Susan B. Anthony was introduced. She spoke of the defeat of the women’s suffragists before the State Convention the present year and offered praises for the Lily Dale Camp and the work of the Spiritualists. “But,” said she, “it is impossible for us to offer our thanks to Spiritualists without being doubly damned for they are just as unpopular as the suffragists.” Rev. Anna Shaw spoke next with eloquence, logic, and witticism. It was noted that many veteran suffragists and Spiritualists go hand in hand on the march of progress. Among them were Mrs. Marion Skidmore, Mrs. Dr. Sarah Morris, and Mrs. Sarah Anthony Bruits, the oldest living Suffragist and Spiritualist (and cousin of Susan B Anthony). Also noted Mrs. Abbey Pettengill, Mrs. Elizabeth Lowe Watson, Elizabeth Cady Stanton. (</span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The Buffalo Express</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">: August 22, 1894; </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Banner of</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Light</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">: September 8, 1894)</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Mrs. Carrie Chapman Catt of New York City was the speaker for Woman’s Day 1895. Miss Mary Anthony reported to the Constitutional Convention of 1894 on behalf of her sister, Susan B., who could not be present. Woman’s Day of 1896, the featured speaker, Rev. Anna Shaw, gave a rousing report of the suffrage campaign in California and Mrs. Cheney, the President of the Chautauqua County Suffrage Club, presided with opening remarks. (</span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Banner of Light</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">: August 31, 1895; </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Banner of Light: </em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">August 15, 1896)</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">In 1897 </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The Banner of Light </em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">reported on the annual Woman’s Day Celebration and described Cassadaga as the “political equalities paradise.” This year, the symposium speakers featured several men, Mr. Thomas Grimshaw and Dr. W.W. Hicks. (</span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Banner of Light</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">: August 28, 1897)</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Woman’s Day celebrations continued annually. The </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Banner of Light</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> reported the 1899 event with Mrs. Mary Ellen Lease, the speaker of the day, with the subject of her address “The New Woman,” encouraging the power of women and the vote. The 1900 Woman’s Day was set apart as “Political Equality Day” to suggest the real meaning of the discussion of woman suffrage, with Mrs. Anna Shaw as a speaker. (</span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Banner of Light</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">: August 5, 1899; August 25, 1900)</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">An interesting footnote to history</span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">regarding a famed photograph</span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">: The Sunflower </em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">of August 15, 1900, observes that many prominent workers in the woman’s movement have been at Lily Dale. “A tent known as the “Women’s Tent” is always erected on the lot just south of the T. J. Skidmore Cottage. Banners with a star representing the states that have adopted woman’s suffrage were planted in or near it, and one of the most popular views of the ground is a picture of this tent with Mrs. Skidmore holding up the banner with two stars for Wyoming and Colorado while Mrs. A.L. Pettengill and Susan B. Anthony is seated near.” (</span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The Sunflower</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">: August 15, 1900)</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">1901 - Woman’s Day with Miss Gail Hamilton on NYC speaker. 1902 Rev. Anna Shaw. 1904-featured speakers Mrs. Lillie, Mrs. Gilman, and Helen Campbell (<i>Banner of Light</i>: August 24, 1901; </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The Sunflower</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">: September 1, 1902)</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The Sunflower,</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> August 1903 - Miss Susan B. Anthony was a guest of Mrs. Pettengill at the Leolyn Hotel. At the symposium of the day, some of the women on the platform were Mrs. A. L. Pettengill, President of the City of Light Assembly, Susan B. Anthony, Rochester, New York, Honorary President of the National Woman’s Suffrage Elnora Monroe, Dunkirk, NY, Superintendent of the Press, National Suffrage Association; Miss Harriett May Mills, Syracuse, NY, Organizer, NY State Suffrage Association; Rev. Anna H. Shaw, Philadelphia, Penna., Vice-President of the National Suffrage Association; Harriett Taylor Upton, Warren, Ohio, Treasurer of the National Suffrage Association; Mrs. Charlotte Perkins Gilman, New York City, Author and Lecturer and others of importance and influence. It was noted that Mrs. Gilman’s work is principally with the family, mothers, and children. Miss Anthony is pledged to universal suffrage, while Mrs. Shaw covers the entire field of human rights—a woman’s in particular. (</span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The Sunflower</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">: August 15, 1903)</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">1905 - Mrs Pettengill, president of the Assembly, introduced Rev, Anna Shaw, and Susan B. Anthony with 1500 attending Woman’s Day. (</span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The Sunflower</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">: August 26, 1905)</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">1912 - The speaker for Woman’s Day was Harriot Stanton Balch, President of New York Women’s Political Union (</span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Dunkirk Observer</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">: August 7, 1912)</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">1913 - The speaker of the day was Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Author, and Lecturer. (</span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Silver Creek News</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">: September 4, 1913)</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">1914 - Mrs. Gertrude Nelson Andrews, President of Lily Dale Suffrage Society, and Dr. Anna H. Shaw, President National Woman’s Suffrage Association, were speakers. (</span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Dunkirk Observer</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">: 1914 - </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The Buffalo</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Times</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">: August 20, 1914) Headline: “Suffrage Workers at Lily Dale Give Big Demonstration” (</span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The Buffalo Enquirer</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">: August 20, 1914)</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">1915 - “More than usual interest is centered In Woman’s Day this year. It comes in the final whirl of the New York State campaign for Woman Suffrage. Dr. Anna Howard Shaw will be the speaker for the day. Other well-known women will also be heard. For twenty-four hours, Lily Dale will be made the tense, gripping center of the Eighth Campaign District. It will be a day to long remember. (</span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Chronicles of Lily Dale</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">, p 319). Jamestown's Mayor Samuel Carlson, a suffrage advocate, spoke in the morning to an unusually large crowd. On the platform were Madame Von Klenner, of the New York Woman’s Press Association, and Mrs. P. Pennypacker, President of the National Federation of Women’s Clubs and others. (</span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Buffalo Evening News</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">: August 19, 1915)</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">1917 - Brief mention of Woman’s Day (</span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Dunkirk Observer</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">: August 25, 1917)</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">1919 - Passed by Congress June 4, 1919, and ratified on August 18, 1920, the 19th Amendment granted women the right to vote. </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Interestingly, in 1919 the Woman’s Day celebration in Lily Dale appeared to be subdued. Mrs. Joseph Rieger, the chairman, gave tribute to Anna Howard Shaw, who recently passed. The speaker was Miss Florence King of Chicago, National President of the Woman’s Association of Commerce. (</span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Dunkirk Evening Observer</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">: August 21, 1919)</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">1920 - </span><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Mrs. Frank Vanderlip of New York City spoke at Woman’s Day with the topic of “Your Vote and How to Use It”; The opening remarks were by Mrs. Joseph Rieger of Dunkirk, congressional chairman and chairman of the meeting: “We have worked long and ardently for the vote, and it is now up to us to learn how to use it for the betterment of government and the conditions of all concerned it.” The Women’s Suffrage Organization of the county was reorganized into the League of Women Voters. (</span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Dunkirk Observer</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">: August 12, 1920)</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Although newspaper reporting appeared minimal in later years before the ratification of the 19th Amendment, the annual Lily Dale Woman’s Day celebrations continued to draw support from women around the country to gather and to increase their campaign efforts for women’s rights.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The suffrage trail has been long and winding. It is to be noted that the Lily Dale Woman’s Day Events attracted the most influential women of the time. Lily Dale has witnessed the birth, growth, and progress of the Suffrage Movement and Women’s Rights, Temperance, Abolition, Divorce Reform, and the Free-Thinkers movements. This place and these women have rightfully earned their place in Her-Story.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Many of the suffragists of Lily Dale, who met, spoke, and rallied for women’s rights, did not have the opportunity to exercise the right to vote. These women were still fighting for equal rights and the vote when they died: Marion H. Skidmore 1895, Susan B. Anthony, 1906, Abby Pettengill 1919, Elizabeth Cady Stanton 1902, Isabella Beecher Hooker 1907. Elizabeth Lowe Watson 1927, Rev. Dr. Anna Howard Shaw 1919</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><b>About the author: Joanne Polizzi Mansfield is a trustee and genealogy researcher for the Chautauqua County Historical Society. She is a retired educator addicted to genealogy puzzles and historical research.</b></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><b> </b></span></p></div>DLJhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14674534926004739081noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3330136066649493860.post-42214834644431108212020-08-27T11:42:00.005-07:002020-08-27T11:54:58.390-07:00The Arrest of Robert Jones in Addison, 1872<p><b>by <a href="mailto:slriverguy@aol.com">Richard White</a></b></p><p>Copyright ©2020 All rights reserved by the author.</p><p><br /></p><p><b>“Our colored people are to have a Grand Promenade…on the evening of the 28th inst.</b></p><p>Robert Jones… is to be master of ceremonies, which is a sufficient guarantee that ‘law and order’ will prevail, and all who desire to ‘chase the glowing hours with flying feet’ should not fail to appear.” This was the Addison Advertiser’s announcement on November 20, 1872, regarding one of the village’s post-war’s annual African-American social events and their annual picnic. Although patronizing at its start, this quotation hints at the “law and order” posture and backbone of Jones, who was a quiet, respected barber figuratively made out of steel.</p><p>Months earlier, on April 7, Jones’ fortitude played a prime role in his arrest when he faced two encounters with a drunken person who wanted a shave. Upon entering the shop the first time, the drunk sat down and proceeded to vomit. On April 24, The Steuben <i>Courier </i>from nearby Bath, New York, described it this way—“the warmth of the room caused Coakley, an Irishman, to throw off from his stomach a portion of its load, leaving him in a partial unconscious condition,” This event prompted an escorted ouster in which he was led out without any strong-arm tactic assistance. Coakley’s second entry into the barbershop resulted in a scuffle with Jones when he refused to leave within a short time. However, his head hit the floor as he was dragged to the sidewalk where a policeman found him later on. </p><p>Coakley was jailed for a short time until the police saw that he was severely hurt and released him to his friends assembled near the lockup. There was no report in the press if Coakley had been arrested on any charge, although The <i>Courier</i> on the 24th stated that he was “confined for drunkenness.” There was no mention of bail.</p><p>In addition, there was no discussion that the Jones-Coakley matter was based on, or connected to, ethic, or racial hostility, or rivalry. This was not a black-white issue.</p><p>Coakley was fatally injured, and he lingered for a week, often in a delirious state. The press reports disagree on the day of his death—some say Sunday, the 14th, while others indicate the next day. </p><p>In any case, a Coroner arrived on Monday and, by law, assembled a jury to assist him in his inquest into Coakley’s death. The Steuben <i>Farmers’ Advocate </i>on April 26 described what happened when they neared the deceased house--“they were confronted by about a dozen Irishmen, with swinging clubs and threats of war refusing to let them enter.” No explanation was provided for this confrontation, but it prompted the coroner and jury to travel back to Addison. </p><p>But they would not return to Coakley’s residence. </p><p>There was an entirely new situation on Tuesday, the 16th. In the early A.M., his remains were moved to Corning for burial, but there was a new demand from his friends—now they wanted an inquest. A new Coroner selected a jury who was able to issue a cause of Coakley’s death. </p><p>Their ruling was that he died due to injuries at the hands of Jones, who later was arrested and placed under $4,000 bail. Jones was not, however, the only person to face a criminal charge. On the 17th, each man who confronted the first Coroner near Coakley’s house was arrested with bail set at $500. At this point, no word on the legal process can be found concerning these men. However, the Jones case’s outcome was well documented.</p><p>What would the Grand Jury do? Would there be an indictment to be followed by a guilty plea or a jury trial? The Addison <i>Advertiser</i> published the decision on June 12 as follows: “The case of the People vs. Robert Jones, the barber, was brought up before the Grand Jury at Corning last week, and their verdict was ‘no cause of action.’” There was no legal compulsion to explain their decision. Though, the <i>Farmers’ Advocate</i> offered compelling speculation as follows: “more to blame than Jones is he who sold the whiskey. Several persons who witnessed the affair wonder at Jones’ forbearance. Jones…[is] a young man who minds his own business, will not originate a quarrel but will protect his domain from incursions of inebriates” because of his stature based on law and order. </p><p><b style="font-family: arial, tahoma, helvetica, freesans, sans-serif; font-size: 15.399999618530273px;"><br /></b></p><p><b style="font-family: arial, tahoma, helvetica, freesans, sans-serif; font-size: 15.399999618530273px;">About the author: Richard White's articles have appeared in <i>Civil War History</i>, <i>The Journal of Negro History</i>, and other publications.</b></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p> </p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p>DLJhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14674534926004739081noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3330136066649493860.post-3138387424554316732020-08-27T11:27:00.003-07:002020-08-27T11:40:32.450-07:00Cross and Flag. The Buffalo Eucharistic Congress of 1947<p>by <strong style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="mailto:pel19@case.edu">Paul Lubienecki, PhD</a></strong></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">On November 8, 1946, Bishop John O’Hara of Buffalo announced that a great honor was bestowed upon the diocese and the city. Buffalo was selected to host the Provincial Eucharistic Congress from September 22-25, 1947. This was only the fourth time such an event was held in the United States.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[i]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> The Catholic Diocese of Buffalo had been chosen in 1947 for two specific reasons. First, established in April 1847, this was to commemorate the diocese’s centenary anniversary and to thank “the Almighty God for the graces and blessings of our first century of Catholic life.” Furthermore, it was a collective expression of faith in “thanksgiving for victory in the World War.” </span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[ii]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> It also evolved into a condemnation of anti-Christian (Communist) ideologies. While local in form, the Buffalo event took on an international identity as dignitaries from around the world attended.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[iii]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The significance of a Eucharistic Congress is primarily spiritual, but there is a temporal component. These assemblies, which still occur, are gatherings of clergy and laity to celebrate and venerate the Holy Eucharist and find the best means to spread knowledge of this Sacrament. The main advantage of these Congresses is to promote devotion and theological discussion of this principle dogma of the Catholic faith.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Bishop Gaston de Ségur of Lille, France, created the first Eucharistic Congress that convened in 1881. Initially, this was to be a regional event. However, this movement’s popularity and importance grew, and subsequent gatherings were organized yearly throughout France. The Congress became international in scope in 1893 when it assembled in Jerusalem. Here a dialog about a reunion with the Eastern Churches commenced. Since then, these assemblies became more ecumenical as members of the Eastern Rite and leaders from various non-Roman Catholic denominations participated.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The Eucharistic Congresses were more than just spiritual affairs. Beginning with the Congress at Reims, France, in 1894, discussions about labor problems and solutions to social questions were part of the agenda. As these gatherings expanded over the years, so did the topics, and these conventions expanded into an informal discussion forum. Committee meetings on youth, the family, immigration, and other pertinent matters were nearly as fundamental as the Eucharistic devotions.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[iv]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> This was evident at Buffalo in 1947.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">When the International Eucharistic Congress convened in Chicago in 1926, it generated great excitement for America’s Catholics. They proved their patriotism in the First World War and were established leaders in business and government. Their faith and national pride symbolized Catholics’ place in American society, as many now believed that Catholicism in America had achieved parity within society.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[v]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> After the Second World War, the Catholic Church in the United States began a decade-long expansion and further integration into American culture. This was the era of the “brick and mortar Church” with new parishes, hospitals, schools, and universities. The assembly in Buffalo reflected this new self-assured attitude.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><strong style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">John Chapter 14, Verse 6: An American Idea</strong></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><strong style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></strong></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The general theme of the Eucharistic Congress centered on the New Testament verse: “I am the way, the truth, and the life.” For Bishop O’Hara, this was more than a spiritual matter as the Congress also represented American values in not so subtle terms. On the eve of the Congress, Bishop O’Hara, an avowed anti-Communist who supported industry and government over labor, broadcast a local radio address that detailed Congress’s programs.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[vi]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> However, his statement focused more on Americanism and reflected the anti-Communist sentiment of that time. In his speech, the Bishop’s opening remarks cited FBI director J. Edgar Hoover’s call to loyalty against “all forms of subversive groups working to undermine our Republic.” O’Hara then referred to President Truman’s recent letter to Pope Pius XII where Truman declared “this is a Christian nation” and that “a renewed faith in the dignity and worth of the human person in all lands” was required to protect an individual’s sacred rights “inherent to his relationship to God.”</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Bishop O’Hara praised Truman for his strong words. O’Hara claimed that all who believed in God should “thank God for the faith and wisdom that dictated that message of Americanism.” In his radio speech, the Bishop equated being a good Catholic with being a good American. He declared that the state’s civil authority was a divine institution; consequently, Catholics needed to rekindle their faith and become better citizens. O’Hara professed that the mission of the Buffalo Eucharistic Congress was to pray for peace, truth, and “hope that the enemies of God and free men will not prevail.” </span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[vii]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> The spiritual and religious theme of the assembly now echoed with the undertones of Americanism and anti-Communist viewpoints.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><strong style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Planning and Committees</strong></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><strong style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></strong></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Buffalo’s John O’Hara was designated as the Eucharistic Congress president and auxiliary Bishop Joseph Burke as chairman. The honorary title of </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Patron for the Congress</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> was bestowed upon Cardinal Francis Spellman of New York.</span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> The planning, technical production, and organization of the programs occurred a year before the event. Bishop O’Hara established an executive committee </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">This group consisted of Bishop Burke as chairman, Monsignor John Nash as vice-chairman, Monsignor Eugene Loftus as executive secretary, and Father Leo Smith as treasurer. This group then formed twenty-eight functional committees with a monsignor appointed as an Honorary Chairman and a priest as an Active Chairman. All priests serving in the diocese of Buffalo were obligated to work for a committee.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[viii]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> However, only a few priests per committee were required to fulfill any of their obligations. Paradoxically, the laity was not invited to participate in any pre-planning production or formally assigned to any committees until after the Congress commenced.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The Executive Committee, having developed the theme of “I am the way, the truth, and the life,” divided the program into three headings. Grouped under the title “Christ our Way” were issues pertaining to the home, family, and “all manner of material interests” such as labor, social duties, and vocations. Schools, education, culture, and professional life were assigned to the caption “Christ our Truth.” Spiritual life, ecclesiastical, and sacramental life were designated as “Christ our Life.” Within each topic, general meetings and sectional gatherings were required. For each conference, three discussion points were suggested: devotion to the Eucharist, specific duties of each group, and a practical discussion forum.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[ix]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> The Theme and Program Committee further developed the agenda for Congress based on the discussion items.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Every committee was tasked with some facet of logistical, operational, and procedural aspects of the celebration. An initial group was the Arts Committee responsible for designing the seal and logo imprinted on all programs, posters, and badges. This committee consisted of twenty-four priests who requested that women’s various religious orders in the diocese forward drawings for consideration. </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Thirty proposals were submitted and evaluated by three commercial artists. The group selected a drawing by Sister Geraldine Rutkuski of the Franciscan Sisters of St. Joseph in Hamburg, New York. Her design placed the Sacred Heart and chalice set against a red background in a heart’s shape. The words “Buffalo Centennial Eucharistic Congress” were placed on the periphery, and the words “The Way, The Truth and The Life” were placed above the chalice.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[x]</a></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank"><br /></a></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Many committees were designated as “minor” as some clergy considered them not part of the Congress’s sacramental aspect.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xi]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> These included Traffic, Transportation, Public Safety, and Ushers. The purpose of these groups was to coordinate the free flow of the crowds at events, preserve order in public places, direct traffic, and obtain special public transportation buses and trains. However, there was no documentation to indicate the extent of coordination required with local police departments or public transportation companies.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xii]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> The Health Committee concerned itself only with first aid stations at the various sites. </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Arrangements were made with the Red Cross and the city health department to respond to major emergencies.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xiii]</a></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank"><br /></a></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Internal notes from the Housing Committee revealed an early concern in finding accommodations for the anticipated gathering of 100,000 visitors attending the Congress. This group canvassed the city and suburbs, seeking lodging in parishes, private residences, schools, and, if necessary, provide cots to institutions for emergencies. Three months before the Congress, Bishop O’Hara sent a pastoral letter to all the parishes asking Catholics to house visitors and guests. Working with the city’s convention bureau, the Housing Committee secured 4000 beds in private homes and 2000 more in hotels.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xiv]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> There was no shortage of rooms during the Congress.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">An essential but mundane group was the Registration Committee. They were responsible for all practical matters, which included managing fifteen information booths throughout the city and at all events. Their duties comprised the registration of attendees, assisted with housing and transportation, offered escorts as required, facilitated postal services for attendants, offer daycare for children, and operated a “lost and found” department. Laywomen, members of the Ladies of Charity auxiliary, performed the more significant part of this committee’s work.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xv]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> It was one of the few areas where the laity was actively involved. Buffalo’s mayor Bernard Down regarded their services as vital to the success of the Congress.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xvi]</a></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank"><br /></a></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The more prominent committees were the Sacristy Committee, responsible for the preparation of liturgical equipment at all public and private Masses. The Decorations Committee was charged with the design, construction, and installation of all materials for public events. This included altars, platforms, canopies, and seating. </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Local architect Alfred Baschnagel was hired to assist with the multiple projects, and various contractors were employed in the construction of altars and platforms. The Processions Committee functioned as a quasi-military unit. It was responsible for transporting dignitaries to and from their scheduled events and for all religious processions, which generally included musicians, school children, and clergy. Members of this unit worked closely with the Buffalo police to coordinate activities and maintain a significant transition among all the proceedings.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xvii]</a></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The Radio Committee and the Publicity Committee coordinated their assignments. In the weeks before the Congress, the Radio Committee conducted a series of broadcasts titled “A Novena of Broadcasts” to encourage Congress’s interest. Initially, this was a local affair, but these broadcasts were transmitted throughout much of the eastern United States within a couple of weeks. These programs proved vital in promoting the upcoming Eucharistic Congress. During the four days of the Congress, all services were broadcast over the radio to much of the United States and Canada.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xviii]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> The Publicity Committee issued daily press briefings. They assisted members of the local religious and public newspapers and the Associated Press and United Press News Services. Representatives from Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and Paramount Studios were invited to record a motion picture history of the Congress. Unfortunately, these recordings have been lost.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xix]</a></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank"><br /></a></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><strong style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">A Great Demonstration of Faith</strong></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><strong style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></strong></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">With the preparations completed, dignitaries from around the world arrived for the opening ceremonies. On Monday afternoon, September 22, 1947, the train transporting New York’s Cardinal Spellman and Cardinal Motta of Brazil and Cardinal Guevara of Peru arrived at Buffalo’s Central Terminal. Buffalo Bishop O’Hara and an enthusiastic crowd of 70,000 welcomed them.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xx]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> A motorcade transported the dignitaries to St. Joseph’s New Cathedral, where 4,000 of the faithful prayed with the clergy for the success of the Eucharistic Congress.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxi]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Later that evening at Kleinhan’s Music Hall, the official start of the Congress began with the Civic Reception attended by the clergy and public officials. The Buffalo Philharmonic Orchestra performed accompanied by soloist Jessica Dragonette who sang several selections highlighted by Verdi’s </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Ava Maria</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxii]</a></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank"><br /></a></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">In his welcoming remarks, Mayor Dowd called the Congress “a great demonstration of faith, a great demonstration of loyalty to God and nation; to the principles of morality and patriotism.” Bishop Burke continued that theme in his speech. He declared that only faith in the Omnipotent God could bring peace to nations that accepted “godless ideology or the imposition of their slavish way of life through force or bloody revolutions.” In their opening remarks, both Bishop O’Hara and Cardinal Spellman spoke of the accomplishments within the Diocese of Buffalo in the last hundred years. They also stressed how the Eucharist was at the center of peace in a war-weary world. </span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxiii]</a></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Approximately 15,000 worshippers gathered in Civic Stadium for the opening Pontifical Mass on Tuesday morning September 23. The celebrant was Archbishop Cicognani, the Apostolic Delegate to the United States. The homilist, Cardinal Spellman, referred to the Eucharist as the Sacrament of Peace and urged all Catholics to be “faithful in love and service to God and each other.” </span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxiv]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Spellman warned that in the pursuit of peace and liberty, we must “rededicated ourselves to the service of God and following Christ for only then will there be a rebirth of freedom and democracy throughout the world. For he who loves God loves right-right, which is the might of any true republic, the basis of her liberties and foundation of her peace.” </span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxv]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> The afternoon and early evening programs consisted of sectional meetings focused on specific topics. These conferences addressed issues pertinent for teachers, nurses, press and radio, office workers, and social workers. Local clergy chaired each group, and individuals knowledgeable in that particular area conducted lectures. The venues for these</span><strong style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </strong><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">meetings were at various hotels and parishes in the city.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxvi]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> The day’s events concluded with the General Assembly held at Memorial Auditorium attended by 20,000 faithful. Several preeminent clergymen presented speeches to the enthusiastic crowd. </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Boston’s Cardinal Cushing praised Buffalo’s first bishop, John Timon, for his leadership. The Cardinal then described how the diocese’s bishops, and those throughout history, were the shepherds of the flock who must be vigilant against those who try to divide priests and people.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxvii]</a></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Renowned radio preacher Msgr. Fulton Sheen delivered the most anticipated speech of the night.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxviii]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> His lengthy talk concentrated on several subjects germane to the time: faith, morals, and the American way. Sheen began his address disgusted that “politics has become the new theology” and that the “passion and zeal, once associated with the cause of God, has now been transformed into fanaticism for Caesar.” He lamented that now, in Christian history, atheism has a political form and social substance, while the “separation of Church and State finally became the separation of religion and State.” Sheen then continued with a condemnation of divorce, stating that society lost its “hold on the natural law”. Consequently, the “family, which is the unit of society,” felt dispensed from its moral obligations. He equated divorce, like a traitor in the home, with traitors among the nation’s citizens.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Sheen referenced the twin twentieth-century evils of the Nazis and the Communists as modern man “has lost his way; he has thrown away the map.” </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The Monsignor condemned those secular attitudes and economic movements as indifferent to the Church and civilization. Only the Cross of Christ had the power to unite the “friends of Christ and also His enemies.” The Eucharist was Sheen’s solution to the evils of the world. In a world of suffering, it was the Eucharist where “the forces of religion will rally” and only the Eucharist can feed men's starved souls. He concluded his discourse with the declaration that “we shall prove to be the greatest revolutionists of our revolutionary times” through a proactive devotion to the Eucharist in atonement for the world’s sins.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxix]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> The following day the </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Buffalo Courier-Express </em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">reported that the crowd responded with “devoted enthusiasm and applause in renewing their faith” at the words of Msgr. Sheen.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxx]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Three Pontifical Masses were celebrated on the morning of Wednesday, September 24, at various sites. The official opening Mass of the Congress was the Children’s Pontifical Low Mass conducted at Civic Stadium where a special altar and canopy, modeled after the altar at St. Ambrose in Milan, Italy, was constructed.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxxi]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Cardinal Spellman’s sermon stressed that the Eucharist was a Sacrament of Peace. Yet his remarks were more of a warning: “the atomic age seems to have brought but a grim interlude in our decade of despair.” The Cardinal urged the faithful to pledge their faith in Christ, “for even God cannot make a peaceful world without peace-loving men to help Him.” </span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxxii]</a></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">At St. Joseph’s New Cathedral, the Oriental Pontifical Mass was celebrated. The liturgy was lead in the Byzantine Slavonic Rite, and the attending priests belonged to the various churches of the Eastern Rite in union with Rome. Bishop Daniel Evancho, coadjutor Bishop of Pittsburgh Greek Rite, delivered the homily. He emphasized that Congress was truly an ecumenical event since the Church was “neither Latin nor Greek nor Slav: it is Catholic.” The Bishop, in his appeal for unity, talked about the history of the Eastern and Western churches describing how they were more similar than different. Ivancho asked the faithful to pray for the churches in Eastern Europe because of its bishops and priests' death and imprisonment by Communists. He reminded the crowd that as Americans, they should be thankful for their freedom and liberties. With the conversion of Russia, the “Providence of God will again be open to Catholic influence.” </span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxxiii]</a></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The third Mass of that day occurred at Hyde Park Stadium in Niagara Falls, New York, where another impressive altar and canopy was erected. The homilist, Cardinal Bernard Griffin Archbishop of Westminster, England, declared the Eucharist as a Sacrament of Unity. The Cardinal preached how the Eucharist was an expression of fellowship with Catholics throughout the world that brought all the faithful together. However, the homily explicitly addressed the persecution of Catholics in the first half of the twentieth century in Spain, Yugoslavia, Germany, and Russia. Griffin viewed the Mass and the Eucharist as the “Sacrament of Unity that will keep Catholics together during these terrible days of persecution.” </span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxxiv]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> The Cardinal urged Catholics to “unite against the common enemy of Communism and materialism. It is the Mass that will unite us.” </span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxxv]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> He advocated for abolishing the barriers of race and nation to unite the Catholics of the world in true spiritual unity. The diocese’s newspaper described the reaction to the Cardinal’s sermon as a “clear call for self-sacrifice in promotion of peace and unity that is enjoyed in our blessed nation.” </span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxxvi]</a></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Sectional meetings occupied the remainder of the day’s schedule.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxxvii]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> The Sectional Meeting for Mothers reflected the perspective of that time. The main address, presented by Mrs. William Berry of Greensboro, North Carolina, concentrated on the “evils threatening the Christian home.” She asserted that adherence to Christian ideas was the “surest guarantee to living a moral life.” The proper venue to learn about God and the Church was in the home. However, she chastised those children who lost their respect and esteem for the home. Her main concern was with young girls who were no longer “attracted to the domestic arts” and raised a family because “they prefer to be businesswomen, secretaries, sales girls or join the women’s military forces-anything that will take them away from home.” She believed it resulted in juvenile delinquency and a higher divorce rate. Mrs. Berry believed that the solution was a Christian society “when the political order will be in conformity with Christian ideas” but until then, “we must be heroic.” </span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxxviii]</a></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Similar ideas permeated other Sectional Meetings. At the assembly for nurses, Msgr. Albert Rung of Buffalo briefly praised nurses for their selfless dedication to healing the infirmed. The remainder of his speech was preoccupied with ensuring that Christian values were evident in nurses and nursing care. The Monsignor affirmed that “nurses must be morally good and spiritually zealous to work good in others” failure to do so allowed for mediocrity. He also placed a substantial responsibility upon them. Rung regarded nurses as combatants on the front line in the battle against atheism and un-Christian systems: “Religion in nursing is the antidote to the false ideologies now seeking recognition, the cure for aversion to the Church, your part in the struggle of the Church against evil.” </span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxxix]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">At the Holy Hour for Youth, Bishop George Leach of Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, spoke to young Catholic girls and boys about finding their place in life. Leach affirmed that the One True Church was the “teacher where you know the true value and meaning and purpose of your life.” It was the Church that provided the moral and spiritual control to America’s youth. The Bishop told the youths that “you are America’s strongest guarantee of liberty” and “true liberty is an ordered liberty.” </span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xl]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> There was no record of the audience’s reaction to the sermon.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The speeches in each sectional meeting, presented by either laity or clergy, reflected three fundamentals. There was a moral decline in society, and only faithful adherence and devotion to the Eucharist could reverse this trend. The Catholic family was the nexus to a moral revival. Next, atheistic political and economic forces besieged the Church. In many of the lectures and sermons where the words Communist or Communism did not appear, the implied meaning was obvious. Finally, words such as freedom, unity, liberty, American traditions, Christian principles, and Catholic family life found their place in nearly every address. These themes tacitly engulfed the Congress, which, at times, appeared to be a religious-political rally.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The final event of the day was the Holy Hour at Civic Stadium. A crowd of over 50,000 attended this solemn prayer service.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xli]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> In his homily, Cardinal Samuel Stritch of Chicago reminded the crowd that the kingdom of God would arrive when “all men’s hearts open to the love of Christ the King.” He stated that the Greek and Roman cultures failed because they lived in a condition of slavery. Christ’s cross redeemed lives and gave dignity to the individual. The Cardinal explained that Christian thought was opposed to secularism and when men open their souls to Christ the King: “we do bring religion into our economic and social life. It is impossible for us to preserve and expand our democracy without bringing religion into public life. Washington and Jefferson saw this truth.” </span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xlii]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> The </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Buffalo Evening News</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> reported that the crowd interrupted Stritch’s homily several times with applause and standing ovations.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xliii]</a></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The final day of the Eucharistic Congress, Thursday, September 25, began with a Pontifical High Mass at Civic Stadium. The crowd of 42,000 worshippers prayed for peace and unity as they listened intently to the sermon of Archbishop Alexandré Vachon of Ottawa, Canada. He characterized the family as the “cell of human society” where the Lord entered the home through religion and the spiritual life. Vachon stated, “God will enter that home where there is love and peace,” and to find God’s love and peace, each person “must live with a clear conscience, in peace with God, with our neighbor and ourselves.” </span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xliv]</a></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The Eucharistic Congress came to a formal end with the Eucharistic adoration and procession at Delaware Park in the afternoon. An estimated crowd of 200,000 pilgrims attended the benediction, having gathered in the park throughout the day.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xlv]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Escorted by the Knights of Columbus and other honorary guards, hundreds of clergy and bishops walked through the crowd toward the specially constructed altar. Behind them marched the laity and representatives of the various Sectional groups and diocesan organizations accompanied by seven bands and choirs from various parishes who sang traditional Catholic hymns.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xlvi]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> At the altar, Cardinal Spellman placed the monstrance on the altar table where he venerated the Eucharist as the choir sang </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">O Salutarius Hostia.</em><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xlvii]</a><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">He then lifted the monstrance, turned to face the crowd, and made the sign of the Cross with it. The Cardinal began his homily and the final prayer of the Congress, and with that, the Buffalo Eucharistic Congress concluded.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xlviii]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Catholics and the community deemed Congress a success.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xlix]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> The attendance for the four-day Congress was estimated at 557,000 pilgrims from all over the world. The weather was sunny and warm, and this contributed to the overflow of outdoor crowds at various venues.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[l]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Buffalo was praised for its facilities and welcoming disposition that enabled the “tens of thousands of hearts to thank God for His blessings to this favored land.” </span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[li]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> However, the economic impact on the city and region was unknown as there were no records related to the costs of hosting the Congress or what visitors spent on accommodations, meals, or travel.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The Congress was both ecumenical and international. Cardinals and bishops from Australia, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Columbia, Denmark, India, Sudan, Sweden, Syria, Uganda, and Ukraine participated, as did the Apostolic Delegate and Papal Legate. Clergy from the Eastern Orthodox rite was also present. Most of the bishops and auxiliary bishops from New York State and the Eastern and Midwestern sections of the United States were present. In total sixty-three members of the hierarchy and 1,400 priests attended the Congress.</span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[lii]</a></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The theme of the Eucharistic Congress was </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">I am the way, the truth, and the life, </em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">but there was an underlying concept at work also. The horrors of the Second World War were still fresh, and the waves of Communist oppression in Russia and Eastern Europe were of serious concern for Catholics and Americans. Consequently, this Eucharistic Congress became a demonstration of faith in God and in the American way of life, as evidenced in virtually all homilies and speeches by clergy and laity. Prominent throughout the four-day event were the crucifix and the red, white, and blue of the American flag joined with the Vatican standard's white and yellow. At this particular moment, there would be no hyphen in the words American Catholic because, in Buffalo, the Cross and the flag symbolized this melding of Catholic faith and values with the beliefs and values of Americanism.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><b>About the author: Paul E. Lubienecki, Ph.D., is a historian writing on local western New York history. Currently, he is completing his manuscript on the history of the Catholic labor schools in Buffalo and their influence on organized labor.</b><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[i]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Previous Eucharistic congresses in the United States occurred at St. Louis (1901), New York (1905), Pittsburgh (1907), and Chicago (1926).</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[ii]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Bishop John O’Hara’s letter to the Diocese of Buffalo, </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The Union and Echo</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">, August 8, 1947, 1. This was the official newspaper for the Diocese of Buffalo published weekly.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[iii]</a><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> The Union and Echo</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">, August 1, 1947, 1.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[iv]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Program, </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The 41st International Eucharistic Congress, </em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Archdiocese of Philadelphia, 1976.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[v]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Jay P. Dolan, </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The American Catholic Experience</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">, (New York: Doubleday & Co., 1985), 350.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[vi]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> James F. Connelly, ed., </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The History of the Archdiocese of Philadelphia</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">. (Philadelphia: Archdiocese of Philadelphia, 1976), 427-428.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[vii]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Bishop John O’Hara untitled radio address. Buffalo radio station WBEN, Sunday, September 21, 1947. Buffalo Eucharistic Congress, Bishop O’Hara Folder, Archives Diocese of Buffalo (ADB).</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[viii]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Buffalo Eucharistic Congress, Executive Committee Folder, ADB.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[ix]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Buffalo Eucharistic Congress, Executive Committee Folder, and notes of Fr. Joseph O’Connor, ADB.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[x]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Buffalo Eucharistic Congress, Historical Committee Folder, ADB.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xi]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Buffalo Eucharistic Congress, notes of Msgr. Eugene Loftus, Executive Committee Folder, ADB.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xii]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Buffalo Eucharistic Congress, various committee folders, ADB.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xiii]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Buffalo Eucharistic Congress, Health Committee Folder, ADB.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xiv]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Buffalo Eucharistic Congress, Housing Committee Folder, and notes from Msgr. John Carr, ADB.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xv]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Buffalo Eucharistic Congress, Registration Committee Folder, ADB.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xvi]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Buffalo Evening News</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">, “Mayor Praises Success of Eucharistic Congress,” September 26, 1947.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xvii]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Buffalo Eucharistic Congress, various committee folders, ADB.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xviii]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Buffalo Courier-Express,</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> “Buffalo Congress to Attract People from Empire State,” September 21, 1947, 1.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xix]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Buffalo Eucharistic Congress, Radio Committee Folder; Publicity Committee Folder and Official Program </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Buffalo Centennial Eucharistic Congress,</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> ADB. Other minor committees: Music, Seminarians, Exhibits, Schools and Records, and History. The Lay Men and Lay Women committees were tasked with serving as ushers or information guides for visitors and guests. Of course, the chairmen of those two committees were clergy, not the laity.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xx]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The Union and Echo</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">, September 26, 1947, 1. </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Buffalo Evening News</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> estimated the crowd at approximately “several hundred.” September 23, 1947, 2.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxi]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The Union and Echo</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">, September 26, 1947, 1. </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxii]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Buffalo Courier-Express</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">, September 23, 1947, 1.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxiii]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Buffalo Eucharistic Congress, Speeches Folder, ADB.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxiv]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The Union and Echo</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">, September 26, 1947, 2.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxv]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Buffalo Courier-Express,</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> “Cardinal Speaks at Opening Mass,” September 24, 1947, 1.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxvi]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Official Program, Buffalo Centennial Eucharist Congress, 19-20, ADB. The Statler Hotel and Hotel Lafayette were utilized for these conferences.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxvii]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Buffalo Eucharistic Congress, Speeches Folder, ADB.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxviii]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Dolan, </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The American Catholic Experience, </em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">392-393. Msgr. Sheen was highly regarded for his national NBC radio program “The Catholic Hour” and by his dramatic and persuasive preaching style. His program was a blend of Catholic theology, moral values, and patriotic American ideas. </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxix]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Buffalo Eucharistic Congress, Speeches Folder-General Assembly, ADB.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxx]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Buffalo Courier-Express</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">, September 24, 1947, 1.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxxi]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Official Program, </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Buffalo Centennial Eucharist Congress</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">, 22, ADB. Civic Stadium was centrally located in the city and used for professional baseball and football. The structure was demolished in 1988.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxxii]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Buffalo Eucharistic Congress, Speeches Folder, Cardinal Spellman, ADB.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxxiii]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Buffalo Eucharistic Congress, Speeches Folder, Oriental Pontifical Mass, ADB.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxxiv]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Buffalo Eucharistic Congress, Speeches Folder, Pontifical Mass, ADB.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxxv]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Buffalo Evening News</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">, “Fight Communism Through the Mass Catholics Are Told,” September 24, 1947, 2. </span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxxvi]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The Union and Echo</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">, September 26, 1947, 2.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxxvii]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Sectional Meetings were organized for: Businessmen and Bankers, College Students, Dentists, Farmers, Lawyers, Mothers, Youth, Teachers, Social Workers, Press and Radio, Workingmen, Religious Women, Nurses, and Public Service Personnel. Official Program </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Buffalo Centennial Eucharistic Congress,</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> ADB.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxxviii]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Buffalo Eucharistic Congress, Speeches Folder, Sectional Meetings, ADB.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xxxix]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Buffalo Eucharistic Congress, Speeches Folder, Sectional Meetings, ADB.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xl]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Buffalo Eucharistic Congress, Holy Hour Folder, ADB.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xli]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The Union and Echo</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">, September 26, 1947, 3, published that 50,000 attended. The </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Buffalo Courier-Express</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">, September 25, 1947, 1, stated that “over 33,000” attended the event.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xlii]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Buffalo Eucharistic Congress, Holy Hour Folder, ADB.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xliii]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Buffalo Evening News, </em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">“Cardinal’s Speech Welcomed by Faithful,” September 25, 1947, 1.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xliv]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Buffalo Eucharistic Congress, Speeches Folder, Pontifical Mass, ADB.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xlv]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Buffalo Courier-Express</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">, September 26, 1947, “Largest Crowd in Buffalo Gather for Eucharistic Congress,” 1.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xlvi]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Buffalo Evening News, </em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">September 26, 1947, “Eucharistic Congress Ends with Great Procession,” 1 and </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Buffalo Courier-Express</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">, September 26, 1947, “Largest Crowd in Buffalo Gather for Eucharistic Congress,” 1.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xlvii]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> A monstrance is an elaborately decorated receptacle in which the consecrated Host is displayed for veneration.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xlviii]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The Union and Echo</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">, September 26, 1947, 1.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[xlix]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Buffalo Courier-Express</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">, “Eucharistic Congress Closes to Great Applause,” September 26, 1947; </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Buffalo Evening News</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">, “Mayor Praises Success of Eucharistic Congress,” September 26, 19471 and </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The Union and Echo</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">, “Cardinal Praises the Faithful,” September 26, 1947, 1.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[l]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">Buffalo Courier-Express</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">, September 27, 1947, 1.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[li]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </span><em style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">The Catholic News,</em><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> September 27, 1947.</span></p><p style="color: #0e101a; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a class="_e75a791d-denali-editor-page-rtfLink" style="color: #4a6ee0; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;" target="_blank">[lii]</a><span data-preserver-spaces="true" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> Buffalo Eucharistic Congress, “Facts of Importance,” ADB; of the clergy, nearly all of Buffalo’s 800 priests participated in the Congress.</span></p>DLJhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14674534926004739081noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3330136066649493860.post-11552423486655288192020-08-18T12:44:00.005-07:002020-08-18T12:49:09.636-07:00Wilderness Waterways: The Significance of Transporters During the French and Indian War in the New York/Montreal Borderlands<b>By George Kotlik</b><br /><br /><br /> In 1893, Frederick Jackson Turner delivered his frontier thesis. Turner’s thesis explored the North American frontier’s influence on the development of American identity. Though he prefers not to define the term “frontier” too narrowly, his meaning of the word essentially covers Indian country and the outer margins of “settled area.”<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn1">[1]</a> Like Turner, this paper will also explore the North American frontier. It will cover the period defined by Turner as the “Old West,” an area of space-occupying the coastal settlements of the seventeenth century and the trans-Alleghany settlements of the latter portion of the eighteenth century.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn2">[2]</a> The Old Western frontier existed between 1676 to 1763.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn3">[3]</a> During the French and Indian War, the North American theatre of the more massive Seven Years’ War, the Old West was a battleground between competing European imperial powers: France and Britain.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn4">[4]</a> This essay covers the war as it was fought in the frontier space between New York and Canada. More specifically, this essay examines the critical role men like Joshua Moody played in the French and Indian War, that is, transporters who ferried troops and supplies up and down North America’s backcountry waterways.<br /><br />Thanks to Joshua Moody’s record-keeping, he left behind a journal that reveals his experiences as a ship captain in the Old West during the Great War for Empire.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn5">[5]</a> Examined in isolation, the journal is nothing of serious consequence. Only when examined in the broader context of the transformative effect’s transporters, like Moody, had on the war effort can the journal be appreciated. In addition to this, Moody’s journal provides modern scholars with a glimpse into the life of an eighteenth-century soldier-frontiersman in the Old West. This method of historical examination is largely influenced by Laurel Thatcher Ulrich’s book, <i>A Midwife’s Tale: The Life of Martha Ballard Based on Her Diary, 1785-1812</i>. Ulrich’s methodology is similar, making relevant a previously considered irrelevant historical document.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn6">[6]</a> Unlike Ulrich, however, this paper will explore Moody’s contributions solely through a political theoretical lens. No consideration is given to the social history surrounding eighteenth-century transporters, an almost central consideration in Ulrich’s research.<br /><br /> Before delving into Moody’s journal, it is important that the reader acquaints themselves with the history of the world Moody occupied. This section of the essay will offer a brief history of England’s war with France in North America, giving special attention to the New York province. Ever since the New World’s settlement, European powers sought to exploit North America’s natural resources. France controlled Canada and much of the interior, including the Great Lakes Region, the Ohio Country, the Illinois Country, and land along the Mississippi River.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn7">[7]</a> New France, the governing body of French possessions in North America, managed this vast territory.<br /><br />Meanwhile, the British claimed dominion over the Atlantic coast from Maine to Georgia.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn8">[8]</a> On the topic of population, Britain’s colonies boasted a vastly superior number of inhabitants than New France. By the 1750s, British settlers in North America numbered 1.5 million colonists, while only 75,000 residents resided in New France.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn9">[9]</a> Hungry for land and territorial expansion, Britain pushed its North American settlement boundaries further west. This expansion eventually collided with French territorial interests in the Ohio Country. After the Battle of Jumonville Glen, an encounter that resulted in the accidental death of a French emissary, tensions between France and Britain quickly escalated.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn10">[10]</a> The result of these tensions produced an outright war in 1754.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn11">[11]</a> Formal declarations of war were not published, however, until 1756.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn12">[12]</a> That conflict between France and Britain in North America would be known as the French and Indian War.<br /><br /> By 1762, the date in which Moody’s journal takes place, the Seven Years’ War in North America, had virtually ended. The remainder of the conflict was fought in the West Indies, India, and Europe.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn13">[13]</a> After the fall of Montreal in September 1760, the looming French menace in the north had disappeared.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn14">[14]</a> The French, however, still posed a threat in Louisiana.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn15">[15]</a> Immediately after Britain’s conquest of Montreal, and with it the seat of New France, British civil government stepped in and assumed administration over the former French-controlled Canadian and western settlements (here considered the Illinois Country, Ohio Country, and the Great Lakes region).<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn16">[16]</a> By 1761, the British had secured all of Canada and its western outposts, establishing garrisons at even some of the most remote settlements.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn17">[17]</a> In the wake of the conflict, settlers poured into the North American interior.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn18">[18]</a> In New York, five hundred dwellings were built in the Mohawk Valley during the last few years of the war.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn19">[19]</a> This attests to the rapid development the Old West experienced in New York during its final years of existence.<br /><br /> Despite the rapid growth and settlement of the Old West during the final years of the French and Indian War, the New York frontier, especially in the north - near and around the Adirondack Mountains, was still sparsely populated and, by following Turner’s definition, can be considered a frontier space. A 1762 Lake Champlain map attests to the region’s lack of developed settlement.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn20">[20]</a> To encourage frontier colonization, Jeffrey Amherst envisioned settlement of the Old West by veterans of the French War.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn21">[21]</a> He even encouraged would-be settlers to seek land-grants.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn22">[22]</a> As such, between the years 1760 and 1763, the Lake Champlain region was slowly settled by both squatters and folk who bought land grants.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn23">[23]</a> During this time, the Lake Champlain space was also a borderland without defined borders.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn24">[24]</a>While British leadership waited for the establishment of defined borders in the region, later formalized by treaty negotiations in Europe, the movement of people and goods was monitored and restricted.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn25">[25]</a> During Moody’s time as a ship captain, he no doubt looked out over the bow of his vessel and gazed upon a vast expanse of wilderness. The mountains, the lakes, the savannas: the abundance with which these existed in Moody’s time attests to the fact that he lived and worked on the fringe of civilization. But who was Joshua Moody? Based on his diary, it tells us that he was a Lieutenant serving on Lake Champlain in 1762.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn26">[26]</a> We also know that he captained a sloop, the HMS <i>Masquenange</i>.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn27">[27]</a> Other than this information, provided to us in the first few pages of his journal, Joshua Moody is a ghost in the historical record.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn28">[28]</a><br /><br /> Whoever he was and wherever he came from, Joshua Moody was issued orders on May 4, 1762, from Lieutenant Colonel Elliot of the 55th Regiment, then commanding His Majesty’s forces in the Northern District at Crown Point.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn29">[29]</a> Moody’s orders were simple: march to Fort Ticonderoga and report to Lieutenant Alex Grant, who would grant him command of a vessel.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn30">[30]</a> On May 4, 1762, Moody was stationed at Crown Point, ten miles from Fort Ticonderoga.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn31">[31]</a> He made the journey and arrived at Fort Ticonderoga by foot on May 5, 1762.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn32">[32]</a> That same day, he was given orders by the hand of Lieutenant Grant, who commanded “his Majesty’s Armed Vessels on Lake Champlain.”<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn33">[33]</a> Grant placed Moody in command of the HMS <i>Masquenange</i> and instructed him to ferry its contents between fort St. Johns and Crown Point.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn34">[34]</a> He was also told to keep a diary and record daily accounts of his expeditions.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn35">[35]</a> On the morning of May 6, 1762, Moody received his orders and cargo: escort two <i>bateaux</i> to fort St. John, an outpost much further north past Crown point on the left-hand side of Lake Champlain.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn36">[36]</a> Orders in hand, he set sail at two o'clock in the morning on May 7, 1762.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn37">[37]</a><br /><br /> Moody reached Fort St. John on May 8 at seven in the morning.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn38">[38]</a> He remained there for five days until he received orders to transport the 46th Regiment’s baggage to Fort Ticonderoga.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn39">[39]</a> He set sail from St. John with the baggage at four o'clock in the afternoon.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn40">[40]</a> He was accompanied by Colonel Browning, Captain Legg, Dr. Lock, Dr. Gillian, and a Lieutenant [name is ineligible in the diary].<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn41">[41]</a> He arrived at Ticonderoga on May 14, 1762.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn42">[42]</a>Afterward, on May 15, he proceeded back to Crown Point, where he received ten days’ worth of provisions for himself and his crew.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn43">[43]</a> On May 16 he set sail for St. John at five o'clock in the morning, arriving there at four o'clock in the afternoon.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn44">[44]</a> On May 18, he set out for Montreal, arriving there at eight o'clock in the evening.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn45">[45]</a> He returned to St John on May 19 at ten o'clock at night.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn46">[46]</a> Accompanied by a Grenadier of the 58th Regiment, including his regiment’s baggage, Moody sailed at sunrise on May 21 for Crown Point.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn47">[47]</a> The remainder of the journal recounts Moody’s trips between Fort St John, Crown Point, Montreal, and Fort Ticonderoga. On June 14, he delivered wooden planks to engineers at Crown Point.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn48">[48]</a> From June 21 through the 23, he ferried soldiers of the 44th Regiment between St. John and Crown Point.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn49">[49]</a> On June 29, he was ordered to return the HMS Masquenange to Ticonderoga, which he did on June 30.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn50">[50]</a> No more journal entries are recorded after he delivered the sloop.<br /><br /> Alone, Joshua Moody’s journal reveals nothing significant to the average academic historian. He met no one of consequence, saw nothing noteworthy, and was absent from any significant defining historical event. Indeed, many entries of his diary simply read, “Nothing Remarkable.”<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn51">[51]</a> However, when Moody’s journal is examined from a political theoretical perspective, taking into consideration the larger role men like Moody played, Moody’s diary reveals insights about the critical role transporters played during the French and Indian War. For it was Moody, and men like him, who transported supplies and soldiers to their various destinations along Lake Champlain, then a frontier borderland in 1762. While this does not sound impressive in and of itself, let us consider the environment the British military found themselves in between the frontier space of Canada and New York from 1760 to 1763. During the French and Indian War, waterways were the main source of transportation for supplies and men of war.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn52">[52]</a> This was due to the confined constraints imposed upon travelers by the thick woods, which covered the region at the time. These woods proved to be a hindrance to transportation, as evidenced by Braddock’s march when the army was forced to hack a road through the thick Pennsylvania forest and the very slow progress with which this was done.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn53">[53]</a> Transporting an army through North America’s untamed wilderness was a slow and arduous process. It was much quicker to make use of the various rivers and lakes, which were found in abundance in the backcountry. The ease and speed with which large amounts of goods could be carried compounded the essentiality of waterway use.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn54">[54]</a><br /><br /> Water vessels were essential to both British and French military operations during the French and Indian War. For evidence that proves this point, look no further than the French siege of Fort William Henry in 1757 and Major General James Abercromby’s assault on Fort Carillon (Fort Ticonderoga) in 1758. Confident of a weakened British force on the New York frontier, the French assembled an army of 8,000 men at Fort Carillon.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn55">[55]</a> In July 1757, French forces invaded Fort William Henry, a British controlled fort situated at the south end of Lake George. Because Fort William Henry threatened the existence of French-controlled Fort Carillon, William Henry needed to be knocked out of commission. In early August 1757, a fleet of 250 French<i> bateaux</i> and 150 Indian war canoes sailed south from the northern tip of Lake George.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn56">[56]</a> The fleet was loaded with roughly four thousand men and cannon.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn57">[57]</a> After their landing, Fort William Henry fell in a week.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn58">[58]</a> In this instance, boat craft proved instrumental in the speedy delivery of men, artillery, and supplies resulting in the defeat of the British garrison stationed at William Henry. In a similar fashion, the utilization of watercraft for military purposes was not restricted to French forces. In July 1758, James Abercromby assembled a force of 16,000 men at the foot of Lake George with the intent of using this sizeable force to bring about the fall of Fort Carillon.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn59">[59]</a> Nine hundred boats were used to transport Abercromby’s invasion force across Lake George from its southern end to its northern tip.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn60">[60]</a> These transport ships were instrumental in securing quick passage of the British force, which would have taken much, much longer than just the single day it took had the army been forced to march on foot.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn61">[61]</a><br /><br /> The significance of transporters in the French and Indian War, as evidenced in the New York frontier, were instrumental in transporting troops and supplies across vast distances in short periods. The significance of transporters during the Seven Years’ War in North America has gone underrated for far too long. This essay serves as a case study to bring to light an underdeveloped aspect of French and Indian War scholarship in the New York/Montreal borderlands. While the boats themselves have been given their credit in accounts of the war, the men who captained such vessels are severely underrepresented. Joshua Moody’s journal provides a glimpse into the life of such transporters. Without him, men like him, and their bravery in navigating North America’s frontier rivers and lakes, many of the events we know about the French and Indian War would have never come to pass. Or at least they would have turned out differently. The speed with which transports delivered troops and goods produced a conflict we are familiar with as it is recounted in history books still to this day. Without these transports or their captains for that matter, an entirely different war would have resulted from France and Britain’s North American contest. This is true, especially considering how slow travel would have been for fully equipped armies navigating overland routes in North America, which were then covered in thick forest. Slow movement across the board would have produced a much slower-paced/progressing conflict, which, in turn, would have possibly prolonged the war and thus prolonged history.<a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_edn62">[62]</a> Ultimately, while Joshua Moody’s <i>Journal </i>offers no substantial insights when examined as a stand-alone journal, it does show the life of a man whose contributions in the French and Indian War were instrumental to the progress and development of the conflict in the Old West.<div><br /></div><div><b>About the author: <span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 16px;">George Kotlik is a Florida-based writer who is originally from the New York Finger Lakes. He has contributed essays and articles to the </span><i style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 16px;">Journal of the American Revolution</i><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 16px;">, the </span><i style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 16px;">Seven Years’ War Association Journal</i><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 16px;">, the </span><i style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 16px;">Armstrong Journal of Undergraduate History</i><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 16px;">, and </span><i style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 16px;">The Hessians: The Journal of the Johannes Schwalm Association</i><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 16px;">.</span><br /></b><div><b><br /></b></div><div><b><br /></b></div><div><b><br /></b></div><div><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -0.5in;"><b>Bibliography and Primary Source(s)</b></span></div><div><div style="text-align: center; text-indent: -48px;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><br /></span></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333335876464844px; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;">Anderson, Fred. <i>Crucible of War: The Seven Years’ War and the Fate of Empire in British North America</i>. 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Norton & Company, 1988.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333335876464844px; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;">Johnson, Rossiter. <i>A History of The French War: Ending in the Conquest of Canada</i>. 1882. Reprint, Westminster: Heritage Books, 2007.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333335876464844px; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;">Leach, Douglas Edward. <i>Arms for Empire: A Military History of the British Colonies in North America, 1607-1763</i>. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1973.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333335876464844px; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;">Marston, Daniel. <i>The French-Indian War, 1754-1760</i>. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2002.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333335876464844px; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;">Moody, Joshua. <i>Journal of Joshua Moody</i>. Mss A 2007. R. Stanton Avery Special Collections, New England Historic Genealogical Society, online at DigitalCollections.AmericanAncestors.org.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333335876464844px; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;">Parkman, Francis. <i>Francis Parkman: The Oregon Trail,</i> <i>The Conspiracy of Pontiac</i>. Edited by William R. Taylor. New York: Library of America, 1991.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333335876464844px; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;">Quinn, Frederick. <i>The French Overseas Empire</i>. Westport: Praeger, 2000.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333335876464844px; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;">Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher. <i>A Midwife’s Tale: The Life of Martha Ballard, Based on Her Diary, 1785-1812</i>. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1990.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333335876464844px; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;"><i><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;">The American Military Pocket Atlas; Being An approved Collection of Correct Maps, Both General and Particular, of The British Colonies; Especially those who now are, or probably maybe The Theatre of War: Taken principally from the actual Surveys and judicious Observations of Engineers De Brahm and Romans; Cook, Jackson, and Collet; Maj. Holland, and other Officers Employed in His Majesty’s Fleets and Armies</span></i><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;">. London: R. Sayer and J. Bennet, 1776. From the <i>Internet Archive</i>. </span><a href="https://archive.org/details/americanmilitary00unkn/page/n21/mode/2up" style="color: purple;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;">https://archive.org/details/americanmilitary00unkn/page/n21/mode/2up</span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;">.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 29.333335876464844px; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px;">Turner, Andrew Jackson. <i>The Frontier in American History</i>. 1920. Reprint, New York: Barns & Noble, 2009.<o:p></o:p></span></p><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="all" style="break-before: page;" /></span><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; margin: 0in;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><br /></p><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; margin: 0in; text-align: center;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; margin: 0in;"><br /></p><div><br clear="all" /><hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" /><div id="edn1"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref1" name="_edn1" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> Andrew Jackson Turner, <i>The Frontier in American History</i> (1920; reprint, New York: Barns & Noble, 2009), 2.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn2"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref2" name="_edn2" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[2]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> <a name="_Hlk46607479">Turner, <i>The Frontier in American History</i>, 42</a>-43.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn3"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref3" name="_edn3" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[3]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> Turner, <i>The Frontier in American History</i>, 42.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn4"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref4" name="_edn4" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[4]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> For more reading see: Colin G. Calloway, <i>The Scratch of a Pen: 1763 and the Transformation of North America </i>(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006); Francis Parkman<i>, Francis Parkman: The Oregon Trail, The Conspiracy of Pontiac</i>, edited by William R. Taylor (New York: Library of America, 1991).<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn5"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref5" name="_edn5" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[5]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> The Great War for Empire is the more appropriate term to call the Seven Years’ War in North America and not the French and Indian War, although they are both acceptable. Their use is made interchangeably throughout the essay.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn6"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref6" name="_edn6" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[6]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> Laurel Thatcher Ulrich, <i>A Midwife’s Tale: The Life of Martha Ballard, Based on Her Diary, 1785-1812</i> (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1990), 25.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn7"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref7" name="_edn7" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[7]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> Frederick Quinn, <i>The French Overseas Empire</i> (Westport: Praeger, 2000), 67.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn8"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref8" name="_edn8" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[8]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> William M. Fowler Jr., <i>Empires at War: The French and Indian War and the Struggle for North America, 1754-1763</i> (New York: Walker & Company, 2006), 2.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn9"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref9" name="_edn9" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[9]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> Daniel Marston, <i>The French-Indian War, 1754-1760</i> (Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2002), 7.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn10"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref10" name="_edn10" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[10]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> <a name="_Hlk46859491">Fred Anderson, <i>Crucible of War: The Seven Years’ War and the Fate of Empire in British North America</i> (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2000), 50-65.</a><o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn11"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref11" name="_edn11" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[11]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> Marston, <i>The French-Indian War</i>, 11.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn12"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref12" name="_edn12" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[12]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> Marston, <i>The French-Indian War</i>, 27.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn13"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref13" name="_edn13" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[13]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> Daniel Baugh, <i>The Global Seven Years War, 1754-1763</i> (New York: Routledge, 2014), 453-619.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn14"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref14" name="_edn14" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[14]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> Francis Jennings, <i>Empire of Fortune: Crowns, Colonies & Tribes in the Seven Years War in America</i> (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1988), 425.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn15"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref15" name="_edn15" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[15]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> Douglas Edward Leach, <i>Arms for Empire: A Military History of the British Colonies in North America, 1607-1763</i> (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1973), 486.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn16"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref16" name="_edn16" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[16]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> <a name="_Hlk46696056">Leach, <i>Arms for Empire</i>, 487.</a><o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn17"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref17" name="_edn17" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[17]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> Leach, <i>Arms for Empire</i>, 487.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn18"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref18" name="_edn18" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[18]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> Leach, <i>Arms for Empire</i>, 487.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn19"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref19" name="_edn19" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[19]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> Francis Whiting Halsey, <i>The Old New York Frontier: Its Wars with Indians and Tories, Its Missionary Schools, Pioneers and Land Titles</i>(1901; reprint, London: Forgotten Books, 2015), 117-121.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn20"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref20" name="_edn20" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[20]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> William Brassier, <i>A Survey of Lake Champlain, including Lake George, Crown Point and St. John</i>, in <i>The American Military Pocket Atlas; Being An approved Collection of Correct Maps, Both General and Particular, of The British Colonies; Especially those which now are, or probably may be The Theatre of War: Taken principally from the actual Surveys and judicious Observations of Engineers De Brahm and Romans; Cook, Jackson, and Collet; Maj. Holland, and other Officers Employed in His Majesty’s Fleets and Armies</i> (London: R. Sayer and J. Bennet, 1776), from <i>Internet Archive</i>,</span> <span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;">https://archive.org/details/americanmilitary00unkn/page/n21/mode/2up.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn21"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref21" name="_edn21" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[21]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> Another term to describe the French and Indian War.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn22"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref22" name="_edn22" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[22]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> Michael Gunther, “Forty-Five Degrees of Separation: Imperial and Indigenous Geographical Knowledge and the Bordering of Quebec in the 1760s,” <i>Essays in History</i> 51 (2018). http://www.essaysinhistory.com/forty-five-degrees-of-separation-imperial-and-indigenous-geographical-knowledge-and-the-bordering-of-quebec-in-the-1760s/.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn23"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref23" name="_edn23" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[23]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> Gunther, “Forty-Five Degrees of Separation,” <i>Essays in History</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn24"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref24" name="_edn24" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[24]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> Gunther, “Forty-Five Degrees of Separation,” <i>Essays in History</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn25"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref25" name="_edn25" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[25]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> Gunther, “Forty-Five Degrees of Separation,” <i>Essays in History</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn26"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref26" name="_edn26" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[26]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> Joshua Moody, <i>Journal of Joshua Moody</i>, Mss A 2007, R. Stanton Avery Special Collections, New England Historic Genealogical Society, online at DigitalCollections.AmericanAncestors.org.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn27"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref27" name="_edn27" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[27]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> <i>Journal of Joshua Moody</i>, Mss A 2007.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn28"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref28" name="_edn28" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[28]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> Although this essay does not explore Moody’s genealogy, that does not mean that he does not exist in the historical record. Traces of Moody and his ancestry may be found in the New England Historic Genealogical Society. At the time of writing this essay, those records were rendered inaccessible due to the Coronavirus Pandemic which restricted the author’s travel and access to archival sources.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn29"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref29" name="_edn29" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[29]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> <i>Journal of Joshua Moody</i>, Mss A 2007.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn30"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref30" name="_edn30" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[30]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> <i>Journal of Joshua Moody</i>, Mss A 2007.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn31"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref31" name="_edn31" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[31]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> <i>Journal of Joshua Moody</i>, Mss A 2007.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn32"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref32" name="_edn32" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[32]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> <i>Journal of Joshua Moody</i>, Mss A 2007.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn33"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref33" name="_edn33" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[33]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> <i>Journal of Joshua Moody</i>, Mss A 2007.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn34"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref34" name="_edn34" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[34]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> <i>Journal of Joshua Moody</i>, Mss A 2007.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn35"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref35" name="_edn35" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[35]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> <i>Journal of Joshua Moody</i>, Mss A 2007.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn36"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref36" name="_edn36" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[36]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> <i>Journal of Joshua Moody</i>, Mss A 2007.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn37"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref37" name="_edn37" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[37]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> <a name="_Hlk46811905"><i>Journal of Joshua Moody</i>, Mss A 2007.</a><o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn38"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref38" name="_edn38" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[38]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> <i>Journal of Joshua Moody</i>, Mss A 2007.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn39"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref39" name="_edn39" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[39]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> <i>Journal of Joshua Moody</i>, Mss A 2007.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn40"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref40" name="_edn40" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[40]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> <i>Journal of Joshua Moody</i>, Mss A 2007.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn41"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref41" name="_edn41" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[41]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> <i>Journal of Joshua Moody</i>, Mss A 2007.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn42"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref42" name="_edn42" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[42]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> <i>Journal of Joshua Moody</i>, Mss A 2007.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn43"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref43" name="_edn43" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[43]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> <i>Journal of Joshua Moody</i>, Mss A 2007.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn44"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref44" name="_edn44" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[44]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> <i>Journal of Joshua Moody</i>, Mss A 2007.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn45"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref45" name="_edn45" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[45]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> <i>Journal of Joshua Moody</i>, Mss A 2007.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn46"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref46" name="_edn46" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[46]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> <i>Journal of Joshua Moody</i>, Mss A 2007.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn47"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref47" name="_edn47" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[47]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> <i>Journal of Joshua Moody</i>, Mss A 2007.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn48"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref48" name="_edn48" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[48]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> <i>Journal of Joshua Moody</i>, Mss A 2007.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn49"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref49" name="_edn49" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[49]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> <i>Journal of Joshua Moody</i>, Mss A 2007.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn50"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref50" name="_edn50" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[50]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> <i>Journal of Joshua Moody</i>, Mss A 2007.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn51"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref51" name="_edn51" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[51]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> <i>Journal of Joshua Moody</i>, Mss A 2007.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn52"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref52" name="_edn52" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[52]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> <a name="_Hlk46859780">Edward P. Hamilton, <i>The French and Indian Wars: The Story of Battles and Forts in the Wilderness</i>, edited by Lewis Gannett (Garden City: Doubleday & Company, 1962), 3-20.</a><o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn53"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref53" name="_edn53" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[53]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> Rossiter Johnson, <i>A History of The French War: Ending in the Conquest of Canada</i> (1882; reprint, Westminster: Heritage Books, 2007), 215.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn54"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref54" name="_edn54" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[54]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> Hamilton, <i>The French and Indian Wars</i>, 3-20.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn55"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref55" name="_edn55" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[55]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> Hamilton, <i>The French and Indian Wars</i>, 199.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><div id="edn56"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref56" name="_edn56" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[56]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> Anderson, <i>Crucible of War,</i> 190-191.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn57"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref57" name="_edn57" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[57]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> Anderson, <i>Crucible of War,</i> 190-191.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn58"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref58" name="_edn58" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[58]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> Anderson, <i>Crucible of War,</i> 195-196.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn59"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref59" name="_edn59" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[59]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> <a name="_Hlk46861672">Anderson, <i>Crucible of War,</i> 240-241.</a><o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn60"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref60" name="_edn60" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[60]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> <a name="_Hlk46859972">Hamilton, <i>The French and Indian Wars</i>, 219.</a><o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn61"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref61" name="_edn61" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[61]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> Hamilton, <i>The French and Indian Wars</i>, 219.<o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div id="edn62"><p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; margin: 0in;"><a href="applewebdata://E42030FD-633A-4EF9-8DD9-8FD8D251599C#_ednref62" name="_edn62" style="color: purple;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[62]</span></span></span></span></a><span face="" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif;"> The American Revolution, an important after-effect of the French and Indian War, would have possibly been delayed since Britain would have attempted to raise taxes much later than 1763.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div></div></div></div>DLJhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14674534926004739081noreply@blogger.com0